Highlights & Basics
- Preterm labor can be caused by various factors and occurs between 24 and 37 weeks' gestation. Spontaneous preterm labor is often associated with infection and inflammation, particularly at early gestations. Only a minority of women who present with preterm contractions progress to actual labor and delivery.
- Risk factors include previous preterm labor, cervical surgery, urinary tract infections, previous emergency cesarean section, and multiple (multifetal) pregnancies. Bleeding and premature rupture of membranes at any gestation is associated with higher rates of preterm delivery.
- Early spontaneous birth can be predicted using serial digital examination or transvaginal ultrasound of the cervix. Fetal fibronectin detected in cervico-vaginal secretions can also be used. Combining cervical ultrasound and fetal fibronectin gives the best prediction of progression to preterm birth.
- Effective prophylactic interventions have not been identified. Cervical cerclage has a limited role in high-risk women, and progesterone therapy may be of benefit. Few lifestyle interventions improve outcome, but cessation of smoking is recommended.
- In utero transfer to appropriate neonatal facilities and prenatal corticosteroids reduce perinatal mortality and morbidity. Tocolytic agents are used in some patients to prevent birth in the short term, in order to achieve in utero transfer and allow corticosteroid administration. Longer-term use of tocolysis is not established as an effective intervention.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
Other Factors
Diagnostics Tests
Treatment Options
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Citations
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Preterm labour and birth. Jun 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Shennan AH, Story L, Royal College of Obstetricians, Gynaecologists. Cervical cerclage: green-top guideline no. 75. BJOG. 2022 Jun;129(7):1178-210.[Abstract][Full Text]
EPPPIC Group. Evaluating Progestogens for Preventing Preterm birth International Collaborative (EPPPIC): meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2021 Mar 27;397(10280):1183-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Care of women presenting with suspected preterm prelabour rupture of membranes from 24+0 weeks of gestation. Green-top guideline no. 73. Jun 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Committee Opinion-Obstetrics. ACOG committee opinion no. 713: antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal maturation. Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Aug;130(2):e102-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
1. Mactier H, Bates SE, Johnston T, et al. Perinatal management of extreme preterm birth before 27 weeks of gestation: a framework for practice. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2020 May;105(3):232-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
2. Romero R, Dey SK, Fisher SJ. Preterm labor: one syndrome, many causes. Science. 2014 Aug 15;345(6198):760-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
3. World Health Organization. Born too soon: decade of action on preterm birth. May 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
4. Office for National Statistics. Birth characteristics in England and Wales: 2021. Jan 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Births in the United States, 2022. Aug 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
6. March of Dimes. Prematurity profile. Aug 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
7. Purisch SE, Gyamfi-Bannerman C. Epidemiology of preterm birth. Semin Perinatol. 2017 Nov;41(7):387-91.[Abstract]
8. Langhoff-Roos J, Kesmodel U, Jacobsson B, et al. Spontaneous preterm delivery in primiparous women at low risk in Denmark: population-based study. BMJ. 2006 Apr 22;332(7547):937-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. Office for National Statistics. Provisional births in England and Wales. Mar 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
10. Maisonneuve E, Lorthe E, Torchin H, et al. Association of chorioamnionitis with cerebral palsy at two years after spontaneous very preterm birth: the EPIPAGE-2 cohort study. J Pediatr. 2020 Jul;222:71-8.e6.[Abstract]
11. Been JV, Lievense S, Zimmermann LJ, et al. Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for necrotizing enterocolitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pediatr. 2013 Feb;162(2):236-42.e2.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Hartling L, Liang Y, Lacaze-Masmonteil T. Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2012 Jan;97(1):F8-17.[Abstract]
13. Smaill F, Vazquez JC. Antibiotics for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(8):CD000490.[Abstract][Full Text]
14. Guerra B, Ghi T, Quarta S, et al. Pregnancy outcome after early detection of bacterial vaginosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006 Sep-Oct;128(1-2):40-5.[Abstract]
15. Simcox R, Sin WT, Seed PT, et al. Prophylactic antibiotics for the prevention of preterm birth in women at risk: a meta-analysis. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2007 Oct;47(5):368-77.[Abstract]
16. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy to prevent preterm delivery: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Feb 5;148(3):214-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. McManemy J, Cooke E, Amon E, et al. Recurrence risk for preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Jun;196(6):576.e1-6; discussion 576.e6-7.[Abstract]
18. Goldenberg RL, Culhane JF, Iams JD, et al. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet. 2008 Jan 5;371(9606):75-84.[Abstract]
19. Aveyard P, Cheng KK, Manaseki S, et al. The risk of preterm delivery in women from different ethnic groups. BJOG. 2002 Aug;109(8):894-9.[Abstract]
20. Ananth CV, Joseph KS, Oyelese Y, et al. Trends in preterm birth and perinatal mortality among singletons: United States, 1989 through 2000. Obstet Gynecol. 2005 May;105(5 Pt 1):1084-91.[Abstract]
21. Mohsin M, Jalaludin B. Influence of previous pregnancy outcomes and continued smoking on subsequent pregnancy outcomes: an exploratory study in Australia. BJOG. 2008 Oct;115(11):1428-35.[Abstract]
22. Yost NP, Bloom SL, McIntire DD, et al. A prospective observational study of domestic violence during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Jul;106(1):61-5.[Abstract]
23. Albrechtsen S, Rasmussen S, Thoresen S, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women before and after cervical conisation: population based cohort study. BMJ. 2008 Sep 18;337:a1343.[Abstract][Full Text]
24. Shennan AH, Bewley S. Why should preterm births be rising? BMJ. 2006 Apr 22;332(7547):924-5.[Abstract]
25. Suff N, Xu VX, Glazewska-Hallin A, et al. Previous term emergency caesarean section is a risk factor for recurrent spontaneous preterm birth; a retrospective cohort study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2022 Apr;271:108-11.[Abstract][Full Text]
26. Williams C, Fong R, Murray SM, et al. Caesarean birth and risk of subsequent preterm birth: a retrospective cohort study. BJOG. 2021 May;128(6):1020-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Moreau C, Kaminski M, Ancel PY, et al. Previous induced abortions and the risk of very preterm delivery: results of the EPIPAGE study. BJOG. 2005 Apr;112(4):430-7.[Abstract]
28. DeFranco EA, Lewis DF, Odibo AO. Improving the screening accuracy for preterm labor: is the combination of fetal fibronectin and cervical length in symptomatic patients a useful predictor of preterm birth? A systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Mar;208(3):233.e1-6.[Abstract]
29. Lee T, Silver H. Etiology and epidemiology of PPROM. Clin Perinatol. 2001 Dec;28(4):721-34.[Abstract]
30. Oregon Oral Health Coalition. Guidelines for oral health care in pregnancy. 2009 [internet publication].[Full Text]
31. Fogacci MF, Vettore MV, Leão AT. The effect of periodontal therapy on preterm low birth weight: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2011 Jan;117(1):153-65.[Abstract]
32. Health Services Safety Investigations Body. Management of preterm labour and birth of twins. Aug 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
33. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Practice Bulletins- Gynecology. ACOG practice bulletin no. 231: multifetal gestations: twin, triplet, and higher-order multifetal pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol. 2021 Jun 1;137(6):e145-62.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Honein MA, Kirby RS, Meyer RE, et al. The association between major birth defects and preterm birth. Matern Child Health J. 2009 Mar;13(2):164-75.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Iams JD, Johnson FF, Sonek J, et al. Cervical competence as a continuum: a study of ultrasonographic cervical length and obstetric performance. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;172:1097-1103.[Abstract]
36. Peaceman AM, Andrews WW, Thorp JM, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a predictor of preterm birth in patients with symptoms: a multicenter trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;177:13-18.[Abstract]
37. Gyetvai K, Hannah ME, Hodnett ED, et al. Tocolytics for preterm labor: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;94:869-877.[Abstract]
38. Dodd JM, Jones L, Flenady V, et al. Prenatal administration of progesterone for preventing preterm birth in women considered to be at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(7):CD004947.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Kyrgiou M, Athanasiou A, Kalliala IEJ, et al. Obstetric outcomes after conservative treatment for cervical intraepithelial lesions and early invasive disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Nov 2;11(11):CD012847.[Abstract][Full Text]
40. Ananth CV, Getahun D, Peltier MR, et al. Recurrence of spontaneous versus medically indicated preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Sep;195(3):643-50.[Abstract]
41. Arbyn M, Kyrgiou M, Simoens C, et al. Perinatal mortality and other severe adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: meta-analysis. BMJ. 2008 Sep 18;337:a1284.[Abstract][Full Text]
42. Castanon A, Brocklehurst P, Evans H, et al; PaCT Study Group. Risk of preterm birth after treatment for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia among women attending colposcopy in England: retrospective-prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2012 Aug 16;345:e5174.[Abstract][Full Text]
43. Castanon A, Landy R, Brocklehurst P, et al. Risk of preterm delivery with increasing depth of excision for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in England: nested case-control study. BMJ. 2014 Nov 5;349:g6223.[Abstract][Full Text]
44. Morken NH, Gunnes N, Magnus P, et al. Risk of spontaneous preterm delivery in a low-risk population: the impact of maternal febrile episodes, urinary tract infection, pneumonia and ear-nose-throat infections. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2011 Dec;159(2):310-4.[Abstract]
45. Allotey J, Stallings E, Bonet M, et al. Clinical manifestations, risk factors, and maternal and perinatal outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 in pregnancy: living systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2020 Sep 1;370:m3320.[Abstract][Full Text]
46. Simbar M, Nazarpour S, Sheidaei A. Evaluation of pregnancy outcomes in mothers with COVID-19 infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2023 Dec;43(1):2162867.[Abstract][Full Text]
47. Shennan A, Crawshaw S, Briley A, et al. A randomised controlled trial of metronidazole for the prevention of preterm birth in women positive for cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin: the PREMET Study. BJOG. 2006 Jan;113(1):65-74.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Shennan A, Jones G, Hawken J, et al. Fetal fibronectin test predicts delivery before 30 weeks of gestation in high risk women, but increases anxiety. BJOG. 2005 Mar;112(3):293-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Ruma MS, Betts M, Dodman S, et al. Predictive value of quantitative fetal fibronectin for spontaneous preterm birth in asymptomatic pregnancies: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2023 Dec;36(2):2279923.[Abstract][Full Text]
50. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy: United States, 2016. Feb 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
51. Corsi DJ, Walsh L, Weiss D, et al. Association between self-reported prenatal cannabis use and maternal, perinatal, and neonatal outcomes. JAMA. 2019 Jul 9;322(2):145-52.[Abstract][Full Text]
52. Hendler I, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, et al. The Preterm Prediction Study: association between maternal body mass index and spontaneous and indicated preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Mar;192(3):882-6.[Abstract]
53. Hincz P, Wilczynski J, Kozarzewski M, et al. Two-step test: the combined use of fetal fibronectin and sonographic examination of the uterine cervix for prediction of preterm delivery in symptomatic patients. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2002 Jan;81(1):58-63.[Abstract]
54. Wang R, Shi Q, Jia B, et al. Association of preterm singleton birth with fertility treatment in the US. JAMA Netw Open. 2022 Feb 1;5(2):e2147782.[Abstract][Full Text]
55. Levine LD, Sammel MD, Hirshberg A, et al. Does stage of labor at time of cesarean delivery affect risk of subsequent preterm birth? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015 Mar;212(3):360.e1-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
56. Watson HA, Carter J, David AL, et al. Full dilation cesarean section: a risk factor for recurrent second-trimester loss and preterm birth. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2017 Sep;96(9):1100-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
57. Cong A, de Vries B, Ludlow J. Does previous caesarean section at full dilatation increase the likelihood of subsequent spontaneous preterm birth? Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2018 Jun;58(3):267-73.[Abstract]
58. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Practice Bulletins-Obstetrics. ACOG practice bulletin no. 171: management of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol. 2016 Oct;128(4):e155-64.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. Medley N, Vogel JP, Care A, et al. Interventions during pregnancy to prevent preterm birth: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Nov 14;11(11):CD012505.[Abstract][Full Text]
60. Heath VC, Southall TR, Souka AP, et al. Cervical length at 23 weeks of gestation: prediction of spontaneous preterm delivery. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Nov;12(5):312-7.[Abstract]
61. Nygren P, Fu R, Freeman M, et al. Evidence on the benefits and harms of screening and treating pregnant women who are asymptomatic for bacterial vaginosis: an update review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Feb 5;148(3):220-33.[Abstract][Full Text]
62. Shennan AH, Chandiramani M. Antibiotics for spontaneous preterm birth. BMJ. 2008 Dec 30;337:a3015.[Abstract]
63. Shlossman PA, Manley JS, Sciscione AC, et al. An analysis of neonatal morbidity and mortality in maternal (in utero) and neonatal transports at 24-34 weeks' gestation. Am J Perinatol. 1997 Sep;14(8):449-56.[Abstract]
64. World Health Organization. WHO recommendation on tocolytic therapy for improving preterm birth outcomes. Sep 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
65. Michalowicz BS, Hodges JS, DiAngelis AJ, et al. OPT Study. Treatment of periodontal disease and the risk of preterm birth. N Engl J Med. 2006 Nov 2;355(18):1885-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
66. Althuisius SM, Dekker GA, Hummel P, et al. Final results of the Cervical Incompetence Prevention Randomized Cerclage Trial (CIPRACT): therapeutic cerclage with bed rest versus bed rest alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Nov;185(5):1106-12.[Abstract]
67. Alfirevic Z, Stampalija T, Medley N. Cervical stitch (cerclage) for preventing preterm birth in singleton pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jun 6;6(6):CD008991.[Abstract][Full Text]
68. Berghella V, Rafael TJ, Szychowski JM, et al. Cerclage for short cervix on ultrasonography in women with singleton gestations and previous preterm birth: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2011 Mar;117(3):663-71.[Abstract]
69. To MS, Alfirevic Z, Heath VC, et al. Cervical cerclage for prevention of preterm delivery in women with short cervix: randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2004 Jun 5;363(9424):1849-53.[Abstract]
70. Care A, Nevitt SJ, Medley N, et al. Interventions to prevent spontaneous preterm birth in women with singleton pregnancy who are at high risk: systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2022 Feb 15;376:e064547.[Abstract][Full Text]
71. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Preterm labour and birth. Jun 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
72. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice advisory: updated clinical guidance for the use of progesterone supplementation for the prevention of recurrent preterm birth. Apr 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
73. Shennan A, Suff N, Leigh Simpson J, et al. FIGO good practice recommendations on progestogens for prevention of preterm delivery. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2021 Oct;155(1):16-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
74. Conde-Agudelo A, Romero R, Da Fonseca E, et al. Vaginal progesterone is as effective as cervical cerclage to prevent preterm birth in women with a singleton gestation, previous spontaneous preterm birth, and a short cervix: updated indirect comparison meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Jul;219(1):10-25.[Abstract][Full Text]
75. Berghella V, Keeler SM, To MS, et al. Effectiveness of cerclage according to severity of cervical length shortening: a meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Apr;35(4):468-73.[Abstract][Full Text]
76. Blikman MJ, Le TM, Bruinse HW, et al. Ultrasound-predicated versus history-predicated cerclage in women at risk of cervical insufficiency: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2008 Dec;63(12):803-12.[Abstract]
77. Simcox R, Seed PT, Bennett P, et al. A randomized controlled trial of cervical scanning vs history to determine cerclage in women at high risk of preterm birth (CIRCLE trial). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Jun;200(6):623.e1-6.[Abstract]
78. Burger NB, Brölmann HA, Einarsson JI, et al. Effectiveness of abdominal cerclage placed via laparotomy or laparoscopy: systematic review. J Minim Invasive Gynecol. 2011 Nov-Dec;18(6):696-704.[Abstract]
79. Shennan AH, Story L, Royal College of Obstetricians, Gynaecologists. Cervical cerclage: green-top guideline no. 75. BJOG. 2022 Jun;129(7):1178-210.[Abstract][Full Text]
80. Shennan A, Chandiramani M, Bennett P, et al. MAVRIC: a multicenter randomized controlled trial of transabdominal vs transvaginal cervical cerclage. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Mar;222(3):261.e1-261.e9.[Abstract]
81. Ehsanipoor RM, Seligman NS, Saccone G, et al. Physical examination-indicated cerclage: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2015 Jul;126(1):125-35.[Abstract]
82. Olatunbosun OA, al-Nuaim L, Turnell RW. Emergency cerclage compared with bed rest for advanced cervical dilatation in pregnancy. Int Surg. 1995 Apr-Jun;80(2):170-4.[Abstract]
83. D'Antonio F, Eltaweel N, Prasad S, et al. Cervical cerclage for prevention of preterm birth and adverse perinatal outcome in twin pregnancies with short cervical length or cervical dilatation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2023 Aug;20(8):e1004266.[Abstract][Full Text]
84. EPPPIC Group. Evaluating Progestogens for Preventing Preterm birth International Collaborative (EPPPIC): meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2021 Mar 27;397(10280):1183-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. Sotiriadis A, Papatheodorou S, Makrydimas G. Perinatal outcome in women treated with progesterone for the prevention of preterm birth: a meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2012 Sep;40(3):257-66.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Dodd JM, Grivell RM, OBrien CM, et al. Prenatal administration of progestogens for preventing spontaneous preterm birth in women with a multiple pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Nov 20;2019(11):CD012024.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Sanchez-Ramos L, Delke I, Zamora J, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a short-term predictor of preterm birth in symptomatic patients: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Sep;114(3):631-40.[Abstract]
88. Kuhrt K, Smout E, Hezelgrave N, et al. Development and validation of a predictive tool for spontaneous preterm birth incorporating cervical length and quantitative fetal fibronectin in asymptomatic high-risk women. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2016 Jan;47(1):104-9.[Abstract]
89. Kuhrt K, Hezelgrave N, Foster C, et al. Development and validation of a tool incorporating quantitative fetal fibronectin to predict spontaneous preterm birth in symptomatic women. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2016 Feb;47(2):210-6.[Abstract]
90. Lewis DF, Major CA, Towers CV, et al. Effects of digital vaginal examinations on latency period in preterm premature rupture of membranes. Obstet Gynecol. 1992 Oct;80(4):630-4.[Abstract]
91. Boots AB, Sanchez-Ramos L, Bowers DM, et al. The short-term prediction of preterm birth: a systematic review and diagnostic metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Jan;210(1):54.e1-54.e10.[Abstract][Full Text]
92. Berghella V, Saccone G. Cervical assessment by ultrasound for preventing preterm delivery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Sep 25;9(9):CD007235.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Honest H, Bachmann LM, Gupta JK, et al. Accuracy of cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin test in predicting risk of spontaneous preterm birth: systematic review. BMJ. 2002 Aug 10;325(7359):301.[Abstract][Full Text]
94. Williams MJ, Ramson JA, Brownfoot FC. Different corticosteroids and regimens for accelerating fetal lung maturation for babies at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Aug 9;8(8):CD006764.[Abstract][Full Text]
95. Berghella V, Saccone G. Fetal fibronectin testing for reducing the risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jul 29;7(7):CD006843.[Abstract][Full Text]
96. Bruijn MM, Kamphuis EI, Hoesli IM, et al. The predictive value of quantitative fibronectin testing in combination with cervical length measurement in symptomatic women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016 Dec;215(6):793.e1-793.e8.[Abstract]
97. Bruijn M, Vis JY, Wilms FF, et al. Quantitative fetal fibronectin testing in combination with cervical length measurement in the prediction of spontaneous preterm delivery in symptomatic women. BJOG. 2016 Nov;123(12):1965-71.[Abstract][Full Text]
98. Watson HA, Carter J, Seed PT, et al. The QUiPP App: a safe alternative to a treat-all strategy for threatened preterm labor. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Sep;50(3):342-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
99. Ronzoni S, Boucoiran I, Yudin MH, et al. Guideline no. 430: diagnosis and management of preterm prelabour rupture of membranes. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2022 Nov;44(11):1193-208.e1.[Abstract]
100. Pirjani R, Moini A, Almasi-Hashiani A, et al. Placental alpha microglobulin-1 (PartoSure) test for the prediction of preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2021 Oct;34(20):3445-57.[Abstract]
101. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Biomarker tests to help diagnose preterm labour in women with intact membranes. Jul 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
102. NHS England. Saving babies' lives: version 3. Jul 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
103. Odubamowo K, Garcia M, Muriithi F, et al. Self-collected versus health-care professional taken swab for identification of vaginal-rectal colonisation with group B streptococcus in late pregnancy: a systematic review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2023 Jul;286:95-101.[Abstract][Full Text]
104. Abbott DS, Radford SK, Seed PT, et al. Evaluation of a quantitative fetal fibronectin test for spontaneous preterm birth in symptomatic women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Feb;208(2):122.e1-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
105. Deshpande SN, van Asselt AD, Tomini F, et al. Rapid fetal fibronectin testing to predict preterm birth in women with symptoms of premature labour: a systematic review and cost analysis. Health Technol Assess. 2013 Sep;17(40):1-138.[Abstract][Full Text]
106. Abbott DS, Hezelgrave NL, Seed PT, et al. Quantitative fetal fibronectin to predict preterm birth in asymptomatic women at high risk. Obstet Gynecol. 2015 May;125(5):1168-76.[Abstract]
107. Esplin MS, Elovitz MA, Iams JD, et al. Predictive accuracy of serial transvaginal cervical lengths and quantitative vaginal fetal fibronectin levels for spontaneous preterm birth among nulliparous women. JAMA. 2017 Mar 14;317(10):1047-1056.[Abstract]
108. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Prediction and prevention of spontaneous preterm birth: ACOG practice bulletin, number 234. Obstet Gynecol. 2021 Aug 1;138(2):e65-90.[Abstract]
109. Yoon BH, Park CW, Chaiworapongsa T. Intrauterine infection and the development of cerebral palsy. BJOG. 2003 Apr;110(suppl 20):124-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
110. Kenyon S, Pike K, Jones DR, et al. Childhood outcomes after prescription of antibiotics to pregnant women with spontaneous preterm labor: 7-year follow-up of the ORACLE II trial. Lancet. 2008 Oct 11;372(9646):1319-27.[Abstract]
111. Abenhaim HA, Morin L, Benjamin A. Does availability of fetal fibronectin testing in the management of threatened preterm labor affect the utilization of hospital resources? J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2005 Jul;27(7):689-94.[Abstract]
112. Watts DH, Krohn MA, Hillier SL, et al. Characteristics of women in preterm labor associated with elevated C-reactive protein levels. Obstet Gynecol. 1993 Oct;82(4 Pt 1):509-14.[Abstract]
113. Lewis DF, Adair CD, Weeks JW, et al. A randomized clinical trial of daily nonstress testing versus biophysical profile in the management of preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Dec;181(6):1495-9.[Abstract]
114. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Care of women presenting with suspected preterm prelabour rupture of membranes from 24+0 weeks of gestation. Green-top guideline no. 73. Jun 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
115. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Group B streptococcal disease, early-onset. Green-top guideline no. 36. Sep 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
116. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG committee opinion no. 797: prevention of group B streptococcal early-onset disease in newborns. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Feb;135(2):e51-72.[Abstract][Full Text]
117. Kenyon S, Boulvain M, Neilson JP. Antibiotics for preterm rupture of membranes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Dec 2;(12):CD001058.[Abstract][Full Text]
118. World Health Organization. WHO recommendations on antenatal corticosteroids for improving preterm birth outcomes. Sep 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
119. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Practice Bulletins - Obstetrics. ACOG practice bulletin no. 217: prelabor rupture of membranes. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Mar;135(3):e80-97.[Abstract][Full Text]
120. Combs CA, McCune M, Clark R, et al. Aggressive tocolysis does not prolong pregnancy or reduce neonatal morbidity after preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jun;190(6):1723-8; discussion 1728-31.[Abstract]
121. Morris JM, Roberts CL, Bowen JR, et al. Immediate delivery compared with expectant management after preterm pre-labour rupture of the membranes close to term (PPROMT trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016 Jan 30;387(10017):444-52.[Abstract]
122. Bond DM, Middleton P, Levett KM, et al. Planned early birth versus expectant management for women with preterm prelabour rupture of membranes prior to 37 weeks' gestation for improving pregnancy outcome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Mar 3;3(3):CD004735.[Abstract][Full Text]
123. Valencia CM, Mol BW, Jacobsson B, et al. FIGO good practice recommendations on modifiable causes of iatrogenic preterm birth. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2021 Oct;155(1):8-12.[Abstract][Full Text]
124. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Inducing labour. Nov 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
125. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 765: Avoidance of nonmedically indicated early-term deliveries and associated neonatal morbidities. Obstet Gynecol. 2019 Feb;133(2):e156-63. [Abstract][Full Text]
126. McGoldrick E, Stewart F, Parker R, et al. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Dec 25;12(12):CD004454.[Abstract][Full Text]
127. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Committee Opinion-Obstetrics. ACOG committee opinion no. 713: antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal maturation. Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Aug;130(2):e102-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
128. Stock SJ, Thomson AJ, Papworth S, et al. Antenatal corticosteroids to reduce neonatal morbidity and mortality: green-top guideline no. 74. BJOG. 2022 Jul;129(8):e35-60.[Abstract][Full Text]
129. Elimian A, Garry D, Figueroa R, et al. Antenatal betamethasone compared with dexamethasone (betacode trial): a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Jul;110(1):26-30.[Abstract]
130. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice advisory: use of antenatal corticosteroids at 22 weeks of gestation. Sep 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
131. Gyamfi-Bannerman C, Thom EA, Blackwell SC, et al. Antenatal betamethasone for women at risk for late preterm delivery. N Engl J Med. 2016 Apr 7;374(14):1311-20.[Abstract]
132. Saccone G, Berghella V. Antenatal corticosteroids for maturity of term or near term fetuses: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMJ. 2016 Oct 12;355:i5044.[Abstract][Full Text]
133. Murphy KE, Hannah ME, Willan AR, et al. Multiple courses of antenatal corticosteroids for preterm birth (MACS): a randomised controlled trial. MACS Collaborative Group. Lancet. 2008 Dec 20;372(9656):2143-51.[Abstract]
134. Crowther CA, Haslam RR, Hiller JE, et al; Australasian Collaborative Trial of Repeat Doses of Steroids (ACTORDS) Study Group. Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome after repeat exposure to antenatal corticosteroids: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006 Jun 10;367(9526):1913-9.[Abstract]
135. Walters A, McKinlay C, Middleton P, et al. Repeat doses of prenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm birth for improving neonatal health outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Apr 4;4(4):CD003935.[Abstract][Full Text]
136. McKinlay CJ, Crowther CA, Middleton P, et al. Repeat antenatal glucocorticoids for women at risk of preterm birth: a Cochrane Systematic Review. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012 Mar;206(3):187-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
137. Rohwer AC, Oladapo OT, Hofmeyr GJ. Strategies for optimising antenatal corticosteroid administration for women with anticipated preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 May 26;5(5):CD013633.[Abstract][Full Text]
138. Wilson A, Hodgetts-Morton VA, Marson EJ, et al. Tocolytics for delaying preterm birth: a network meta-analysis (0924). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Aug 10;8(8):CD014978.[Abstract][Full Text]
139. Khan K, Zamora J, Lamont RF, et al. Safety concerns for the use of calcium channel blockers in pregnancy for the treatment of spontaneous preterm labour and hypertension: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2010 Sep;23(9):1030-8.[Abstract]
140. Neilson JP, West HM, Dowswell T. Betamimetics for inhibiting preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Feb 5;(2):CD004352.[Abstract][Full Text]
141. Flenady V, Wojcieszek AM, Papatsonis DN, et al. Calcium channel blockers for inhibiting preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jun 5;2014;(6):CD002255.[Abstract][Full Text]
142. Flenady V, Reinebrant HE, Liley HG, et al. Oxytocin receptor antagonists for inhibiting preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jun 6;(6):CD004452.[Abstract][Full Text]
143. van Vliet EO, Nijman TA, Schuit E, et al. Nifedipine versus atosiban for threatened preterm birth (APOSTEL III): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016 May 21;387(10033):2117-24.[Abstract]
144. Papatsonis D, Flenady V, Liley H. Maintenance therapy with oxytocin antagonists for inhibiting preterm birth after threatened preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Oct 13;(10):CD005938.[Abstract][Full Text]
145. Doyle LW, Crowther CA, Middleton P, et al. Magnesium sulphate for women at risk of preterm birth for neuroprotection of the fetus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Jan 21;(1):CD004661.[Abstract]
146. Shennan A, Suff N, Jacobsson B, et al. FIGO good practice recommendations on magnesium sulfate administration for preterm fetal neuroprotection. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2021 September 14;155(1):31-3.[Full Text]
147. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Committee Opinion. ACOG committee opinion no. 455: magnesium sulfate before anticipated preterm birth for neuroprotection. Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Mar;115(3):669-71.[Abstract][Full Text]
148. Crowther CA, Brown J, McKinlay CJ, et al. Magnesium sulphate for preventing preterm birth in threatened preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Aug 15;(8):CD001060.[Abstract][Full Text]
149. Hoffman MK, Clifton RG, Biggio JR, et al. Cervical pessary for prevention of preterm birth in individuals with a short cervix: the TOPS randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023 Jul 25;330(4):340-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
150. Abdel-Aleem H, Shaaban OM, Abdel-Aleem MA, et al. Cervical pessary for preventing preterm birth in singleton pregnancies. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Dec 1;12(12):CD014508.[Abstract][Full Text]
151. Norman JE, Norrie J, MacLennan G, et al. Evaluation of the Arabin cervical pessary for prevention of preterm birth in women with a twin pregnancy and short cervix (STOPPIT-2): an open-label randomised trial and updated meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2021 Mar;18(3):e1003506.[Abstract][Full Text]
152. D'Antonio F, Berghella V, Di Mascio D, et al. Role of progesterone, cerclage and pessary in preventing preterm birth in twin pregnancies: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2021 Jun;261:166-77.[Abstract]
153. Northern AT, Norman GS, Anderson K, et al. Follow up of children exposed in utero to 17-alpha hydroxyprogesterone caproate compared with placebo. Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Oct;110(4):865-72.[Abstract]
154. Simons NE, Leeuw M, Van't Hooft J, et al. The long-term effect of prenatal progesterone treatment on child development, behaviour and health: a systematic review. BJOG. 2021 May;128(6):964-74.[Abstract][Full Text]
155. Leduc D, Biringer A, Lee L, et al. Induction of labour. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2013 Sep;35(9):840-57.[Abstract][Full Text]
156. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Practice bulletin No. 142: Cerclage for the management of cervical insufficiency. Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Feb;123(2 Pt 1):372-9.[Abstract]
157. Michael Geary. FIGO working group for preterm birth-good practice recommendations. Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet. 2021 Oct; 151(1):e1-4, 1-165.[Full Text]
158. Crump C, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Preterm delivery and long term mortality in women: national cohort and co-sibling study. BMJ. 2020 Aug 19;370:m2533.[Abstract][Full Text]
159. Parikh NI, Gonzalez JM, Anderson CAM, et al. Adverse pregnancy outcomes and cardiovascular disease risk: unique opportunities for cardiovascular disease prevention in women: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2021 May 4;143(18):e902-16.[Abstract][Full Text]
160. McNestry C, Killeen SL, Crowley RK, et al. Pregnancy complications and later life women's health. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2023 May;102(5):523-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
161. Marlow N, Wolke D, Bracewell MA, et al. EPICure Study Group. Neurologic and developmental disability at six years of age after extremely preterm birth. N Engl J Med. 2005 Jan 6;352(1):9-19.[Abstract][Full Text]
