Acute liver failure - Symptoms, Causes, Images, and Treatment Options

Diseases

Highlights & Basics

Key Highlights

Acute liver failure is a rare, life-threatening, potentially reversible condition defined by jaundice, coagulopathy, and hepatic encephalopathy.
Occurs in patients with no preexisting liver disease and may result in severe liver impairment and rapid clinical deterioration.
The etiology and the interval from onset of jaundice to the development of encephalopathy have a significant impact on prognosis.
Etiology is established by history, serological assays, and exclusion of alternative causes, including acute presentations of chronic liver diseases.
Treatment involves intensive care unit monitoring, specific therapies based on etiology, and management of known complications.

Quick Reference

History & Exam
- Key Factors
- Other Factors
More information...
Diagnostics Tests
More information...
Treatment Options
More information...

Definition

Epidemiology

Etiology

Pathophysiology

Citations

Key Articles

Shingina A, Mukhtar N, Wakim-Fleming J, et al. Acute liver failure guidelines. Am J Gastroenterol. 2023 Jul 1;118(7):1128-53.[Abstract][Full Text]
Lee WM, Squires RH Jr, Nyberg SL, et al. Acute liver failure: summary of a workshop. Hepatology. 2008 Apr;47(4):1401-15.[Abstract][Full Text]
American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. AASLD position paper: the management of acute liver failure: update 2011. Nov 2011 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Larson AM, Polson J, Fontana RJ, et al. Acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure: results of a United States multicenter, prospective study. Hepatology. 2005 Dec;42(6):1364-72.[Abstract]
Wendon J, Cordoba J, Dhawan A, et al; European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practical guidelines on the management of acute (fulminant) liver failure. J Hepatol. 2017 May;66(5):1047-81.[Abstract][Full Text]
O'Grady JG, Alexander GJ, Hayllar KM, et al. Early indicators of prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology. 1989 Aug;97(2):339-45.[Abstract]

Other Online Resources

Patient UK: liver failure
NIH: LiverTox
FDA: Drug induced liver injury rank (DILIrank) dataset

Referenced Articles

1. Trey C, Davidson CS. The management of fulminant hepatic failure. Prog Liver Dis. 1970;3:282-98.[Abstract]
2. Gimson AE, O'Grady J, Ede RJ, et al. Late onset hepatic failure: clinical, serological and histological features. Hepatology. 1986 Mar-Apr;6(2):288-94.[Abstract]
3. Bernuau J, Rueff B, Benhamou JP. Fulminant and subfulminant liver failure: definitions and causes. Semin Liver Dis. 1986 May;6(2):97-106.[Abstract]
4. Shingina A, Mukhtar N, Wakim-Fleming J, et al. Acute liver failure guidelines. Am J Gastroenterol. 2023 Jul 1;118(7):1128-53.[Abstract][Full Text]
5. Bajaj JS, O'Leary JG, Lai JC, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure clinical guidelines. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022 Feb 1;117(2):225-52.[Abstract][Full Text]
6. O'Grady JG, Schalm SW, Williams R. Acute liver failure: redefining the syndromes. Lancet. 1993 Jul 31;342(8866):273-5.[Abstract]
7. Lee WM, Squires RH Jr, Nyberg SL, et al. Acute liver failure: summary of a workshop. Hepatology. 2008 Apr;47(4):1401-15.[Abstract][Full Text]
8. American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. AASLD position paper: the management of acute liver failure: update 2011. Nov 2011 [internet publication].[Full Text]
9. Bernal W, Wendon J. Acute liver failure. N Engl J Med. 2013 Dec 26;369(26):2525-34.[Abstract][Full Text]
10. Kwong AJ, Ebel NH, Kim WR, et al. OPTN/SRTR 2021 Annual data report: liver. Am J Transplant. 2023 Feb;23(2 suppl 1):S178-263.[Abstract][Full Text]
11. Chung RT, Stravitz RT, Fontana RJ, et al. Pathogenesis of liver injury in acute liver failure. Gastroenterology. 2012 Sep;143(3):e1-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Reuben A, Tillman H, Fontana RJ, et al. Outcomes in adults with acute liver failure between 1998 and 2013: an observational cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2016 Jun 7;164(11):724-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. Stravitz RT, Lee WM. Acute liver failure. Lancet. 2019 Sep 7;394(10201):869-81.[Abstract]
14. Lancaster EM, Hiatt JR, Zarrinpar A. Acetaminophen hepatotoxicity: an updated review. Arch Toxicol. 2015 Feb;89(2):193-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
15. Reuben A, Koch DG, Lee WM, et al. Drug-induced acute liver failure: results of a US multicenter, prospective study. Hepatology. 2010 Dec;52(6):2065-76.[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Frey SM, Wiegand TJ, Green JL, et al. Confirming the causative role of acetaminophen in indeterminate acute liver failure using acetaminophen-cysteine adducts. J Med Toxicol. 2015 Jun;11(2):218-22.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. Ghabril M, Ma J, Patidar KR, et al. Eight-fold increase in dietary supplement-related liver failure leading to transplant waitlisting over the last quarter century in the United States. Liver Transpl. 2022 Feb;28(2):169-79.[Abstract]
18. Wei G, Bergquist A, Broome U, et al. Acute liver failure in Sweden: etiology and outcome. J Intern Med. 2007 Sep;262(3):393-401.[Abstract]
19. Hadem J, Stiefel P, Bahr MJ, et al. Prognostic implications of lactate, bilirubin, and etiology in German patients with acute liver failure. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008 Mar;6(3):339-45.[Abstract]
20. Patterson J, Hussey HS, Silal S, et al. Systematic review of the global epidemiology of viral-induced acute liver failure. BMJ Open. 2020 Jul 20;10(7):e037473.[Abstract][Full Text]
21. Liu J, Ghaziani TT, Wolf JL. Acute fatty liver disease of pregnancy: updates in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. Am J Gastroenterol. 2017 Jun;112(6):838-46.[Abstract]
22. Heard KJ. Acetylcysteine for acetaminophen poisoning. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jul 17;359(3):285-92.[Abstract]
23. Louvet A, Ntandja Wandji LC, Lemaître E, et al. Acute liver injury with therapeutic doses of acetaminophen: a prospective study. Hepatology. 2021 May;73(5):1945-55.[Abstract]
24. Larson AM, Polson J, Fontana RJ, et al. Acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure: results of a United States multicenter, prospective study. Hepatology. 2005 Dec;42(6):1364-72.[Abstract]
25. Myers RP, Shaheen AA, Li B, et al. Impact of liver disease, alcohol abuse, and unintentional ingestions on the outcomes of acetaminophen overdose. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008 Aug;6(8):918-25.[Abstract]
26. Garfein RS, Bower WA, Loney CM, et al. Factors associated with fulminant liver failure during an outbreak among injection drug users with acute hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2004 Oct;40(4):865-73.[Abstract]
27. Puri P, Lee WM, Fontana RJ, et al. Alcohol consumption is associated with the severity and outcome of acute liver injury/failure. Liver Int. 2020 Feb;40(2):360-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Russo MW, Galanko JA, Shrestha R, et al. Liver transplantation for acute liver failure from drug induced liver injury in the United States. Liver Transpl. 2004 Aug;10(8):1018-23.[Abstract][Full Text]
29. Fontana RJ, Liou I, Reuben A, et al. AASLD practice guidance on drug, herbal, and dietary supplement-induced liver injury. Hepatology. 2022 Jul 27 [Epub ahead of print].[Abstract][Full Text]
30. Schmidt LE. Age and paracetamol self-poisoning. Gut. 2005 May;54(5):686-90.[Abstract]
31. Takikawa Y, Endo R, Suzuki K, et al. Prediction of hepatic encephalopathy development in patients with severe acute hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2006 Feb;51(2):359-64.[Abstract]
32. Jin H, Zhao Y, Zhang X, et al. Case-fatality risk of pregnant women with acute viral hepatitis type E: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2016 Jul;144(10):2098-106.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines on the management of liver diseases in pregnancy. J Hepatol. 2023 Sep;79(3):768-828.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on hepatitis E virus infection. J Hepatol. 2018 Jun;68(6):1256-71.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Bergløv A, Hallager S, Weis N. Hepatitis E during pregnancy: maternal and foetal case-fatality rates and adverse outcomes-A systematic review. J Viral Hepat. 2019 Nov;26(11):1240-8.[Abstract]
36. Borkakoti J, Hazam RK, Mohammad A, et al. Does high viral load of hepatitis E virus influence the severity and prognosis of acute liver failure during pregnancy? J Med Virol. 2013 Apr;85(4):620-6.[Abstract]
37. Chu CM, Liaw YF. The incidence of fulminant hepatic failure in acute viral hepatitis in Taiwan: increased risk in patients with pre-existing HBsAg carrier state. Infection. 1990 Jul-Aug;18(4):200-3.[Abstract]
38. Chu CM, Liaw YF. Increased incidence of fulminant hepatic failure in previously unrecognized HBsAg carriers with acute hepatitis independent of etiology. Infection. 2005 Jun;33(3):136-9.[Abstract]
39. Yurdaydın C, Idilman R, Bozkaya H, et al. Natural history and treatment of chronic delta hepatitis. J Viral Hepat. 2010 Nov;17(11):749-56.[Abstract]
40. Karvellas CJ, Cardoso FS, Gottfried M, et al. HBV-associated acute liver failure after immunosuppression and risk of death. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017 Jan;15(1):113-22.[Abstract]
41. Hillman L, Gottfried M, Whitsett M, et al. Clinical features and outcomes of complementary and alternative medicine induced acute liver failure and injury. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jul;111(7):958-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
42. Schilsky ML, Roberts EA, Bronstein JM, et al. A multidisciplinary approach to the diagnosis and management of Wilson disease: executive summary of the 2022 practice guidance on Wilson disease from the American Association for the study of liver diseases. Hepatology. 2023 Apr 1;77(4):1428-55.[Full Text]
43. Nguyen GC, Sam J, Thuluvath PJ. Hepatitis C is a predictor of acute liver injury among hospitalizations for acetaminophen overdose in the United States: a nationwide analysis. Hepatology. 2008 Oct;48(4):1336-41.[Abstract]
44. Vento S, Garofano T, Renzini C, et al. Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N Engl J Med. 1998 Jan;338(9):286-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
45. Kramer JR, Giordano TP, Souchek J, et al. Hepatitis C coinfection increases the risk of fulminant hepatic failure in patients with HIV in the HAART era. J Hepatol. 2005 Mar;42(3):309-14.[Abstract]
46. Bernal W, Hyyrylainen A, Gera A, et al. Lessons from look-back in acute liver failure? A single centre experience of 3300 patients. J Hepatol. 2013 Jul;59(1):74-80.[Abstract]
47. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Child and adolescent immunization schedule by age: recommendations for ages 18 years or younger, United States, 2024. Nov 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
48. American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Evaluation for liver transplantation in adults: 2013 practice guideline by AASLD and AST. March 2014 [internet publication].[Full Text]
49. Vilstrup H, Amodio P, Bajaj J, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy in chronic liver disease: 2014 practice guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the European Association for the Study of the Liver. Hepatology. 2014 Aug;60(2):715-35.[Abstract][Full Text]
50. Agarwal R, Baid R. Asterixis. J Postgrad Med. Apr-Jun 2016;62(2):115-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Wendon J, Cordoba J, Dhawan A, et al; European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practical guidelines on the management of acute (fulminant) liver failure. J Hepatol. 2017 May;66(5):1047-81.[Abstract][Full Text]
52. Rompianesi G, Hann A, Komolafe O, et al. Serum amylase and lipase and urinary trypsinogen and amylase for diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Apr 21;4(4):CD012010.[Abstract][Full Text]
53. Tenner S, Baillie J, DeWitt J, et al. American College of Gastroenterology guideline: management of acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013 Sep;108(9):1400-15.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. American Society for Clinical Pathology. Do not test for amylase in cases of suspected acute pancreatitis. Instead, test for lipase. Sept 2016 [internet publication].[Full Text]
55. Coté GA, Gottstein JH, Daud A, et al. The role of etiology in the hyperamylasemia of acute liver failure. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009 Mar;104(3):592-7.[Abstract]
56. Leventhal TM, Gottfried M, Olson JC, et al. Acetaminophen is undetectable in plasma from more than half of patients believed to have acute liver failure due to overdose. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019 Sep;17(10):2110-6.[Abstract]
57. Rajajee V, Williamson CA, Fontana RJ, et al. Noninvasive intracranial pressure assessment in acute liver failure. Neurocrit Care. 2018 Oct;29(2):280-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
58. Flamm SL, Yang YX, Singh S, et al. American Gastroenterological Association Institute guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute liver failure. Gastroenterology. 2017 Feb;152(3):644-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. Rich NE, Sanders C, Hughes RS, et al. Malignant infiltration of the liver presenting as acute liver failure. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015 May;13(5):1025-8.[Abstract]
60. Stravitz RT, Lefkowitch JH, Fontana RJ, et al. Autoimmune acute liver failure: proposed clinical and histological criteria. Hepatology. 2011 Feb;53(2):517-26.[Abstract][Full Text]
61. Noor A, Panwala A, Forouhar F, et al. Hepatitis caused by herpes viruses: a review. J Dig Dis. 2018 Aug;19(8):446-55. [Abstract]
62. Bernuau J, Samuel D, Durand F, et al. Criteria for emergency liver transplantation in patients with acute viral hepatitis and factor V below 50% of normal: a prospective study. Hepatology. 1991;14:49A.
63. Patidar KR, Davis BC, Slaven JE, et al. Admission factor V predicts transplant-free survival in acute liver failure. Dig Dis Sci. 2021 Feb;66(2):619-27.[Abstract]
64. O'Grady JG, Alexander GJ, Hayllar KM, et al. Early indicators of prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology. 1989 Aug;97(2):339-45.[Abstract]
65. Serper M, Wolf MS, Parikh NA, et al. Risk factors, clinical presentation, and outcomes in overdose with acetaminophen alone or with combination products: results from the Acute Liver Failure Study Group. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2016 Jan;50(1):85-91.[Abstract]
66. Chalasani NP, Maddur H, Russo MW, et al. ACG clinical guideline: diagnosis and management of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury. Am J Gastroenterol. 2021 May 1;116(5):878-98.[Abstract][Full Text]
67. Munoz SJ, Rajender Reddy K, Lee W, et al. The coagulopathy of acute liver failure and implications for intracranial pressure monitoring. Neurocrit Care. 2008;9(1):103-7.[Abstract]
68. Munoz SJ, Stravitz RT, Gabriel DA. Coagulopathy of acute liver failure. Clin Liver Dis. 2009 Feb;13(1):95-107.[Abstract]
69. Ferenci P, Lockwood A, Mullen K, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy: definition, nomenclature, diagnosis, and quantification: final report of the working party at the 11th World Congresses of Gastroenterology, Vienna, 1998. Hepatology. 2002 Mar;35(3):716-21.[Abstract][Full Text]
70. Conn HO, Leevy CM, Vlahcevic ZR, et al. Comparison of lactulose and neomycin in the treatment of chronic portal-systemic encephalopathy. A double blind controlled trial. Gastroenterology. 1977 Apr;72(4 Pt 1):573-83.[Abstract]
71. Robles-Diaz M, Lucena MI, Kaplowitz N, et al. Use of Hy's law and a new composite algorithm to predict acute liver failure in patients with drug-induced liver injury. Gastroenterology. 2014;147:109-118.e5.[Abstract][Full Text]
72. Korman JD, Volenberg I, Balko J, et al. Screening for Wilson disease in acute liver failure: a comparison of currently available diagnostic tests. Hepatology. 2008 Oct;48(4):1167-74.[Abstract]
73. Stravitz RT, Ellerbe C, Durkalski V, et al; Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Thrombocytopenia is associated with multi-organ system failure in patients with acute liver failure. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016 Apr;14(4):613-20.e4.[Abstract]
74. Bernal W, Donaldson N, Wyncoll D, et al. Blood lactate as an early predictor of outcome in paracetamol-induced acute liver failure: a cohort study. Lancet. 2002 Feb 16;359(9306):558-63.[Abstract]
75. Poff JA, Coakley FV, Qayyum A, et al. Frequency and histopathologic basis of hepatic surface nodularity in patients with fulminant hepatic failure. Radiology. 2008 Nov;249(2):518-23.[Abstract]
76. Bernal W, Hall C, Karvellas CJ, et al. Arterial ammonia and clinical risk factors for encephalopathy and intracranial hypertension in acute liver failure. Hepatology. 2007 Dec;46(6):1844-52.[Abstract][Full Text]
77. Ahmad J, Rossi S, Rodgers SK, et al. Sclerosing cholangitis-like changes on magnetic resonance cholangiography in patients with drug induced liver injury. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019 Mar;17(4):789-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
78. Czaja AJ, dos Santos RM, Porto A, et al. Immune phenotype of chronic liver disease. Dig Dis Sci. 1998 Sep;43(9):2149-55.[Abstract]
79. Friedman LS. Liver transplantation for sickle cell hepatopathy. Liver Transpl. 2007 Apr;13(4):483-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
80. Pauwels A, Mostefa-Kara N, Florent C, et al. Emergency liver transplantation for acute liver failure. Evaluation of London and Clichy criteria. J Hepatol. 1993 Jan;17(1):124-7.[Abstract]
81. Anand AC, Nightingale P, Neuberger JM. Early indicators of prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure: an assessment of the King's criteria. J Hepatol. 1997 Jan;26(1):62-8.[Abstract]
82. Shakil AO, Kramer D, Mazariegos GV, et al. Acute liver failure: clinical features, outcome analysis, and applicability of prognostic criteria. Liver Transpl. 2000 Mar;6(2):163-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
83. Bailey B, Amre DK, Gaudreault P. Fulminant hepatic failure secondary to acetaminophen poisoning: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prognostic criteria determining the need for liver transplantation. Crit Care Med. 2003 Jan;31(1):299-305.[Abstract]
84. McPhail MJ, Wendon JA, Bernal W. Meta-analysis of performance of Kings's College Hospital Criteria in prediction of outcome in non-paracetamol-induced acute liver failure. J Hepatol. 2010 Sep;53(3):492-9.[Abstract]
85. Sundaram V, Shneider BL, Dhawan A, et al. King's College Hospital Criteria for non-acetaminophen induced acute liver failure in an international cohort of children. J Pediatr. 2013 Feb;162(2):319-23.e1.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Izumi S, Langley PG, Wendon J, et al. Coagulation factor V levels as a prognostic indicator in fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology. 1996 Jun;23(6):1507-11.[Abstract]
87. Kamath PS, Wiesner RH, Malinchoc M, et al. A model to predict survival in patients with end-stage liver disease. Hepatology. 2001 Feb;33(2):464-70.[Abstract]
88. Wiesner R, Edwards E, Freeman R, et al. Model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) and allocation of donor livers. Gastroenterology. 2003 Jan;124(1):91-6.[Abstract]
89. Kremers WK, van IJperen M, Kim WR, et al. MELD score as a predictor of pretransplant and posttransplant survival in OPTN/UNOS status 1 patients. Hepatology. 2004 Mar;39(3):764-9.[Abstract]
90. Zaman MB, Hoti E, Qasim A, et al. MELD score as a prognostic model for listing acute liver failure patients for liver transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2006 Sep;38(7):2097-8.[Abstract]
91. Katoonizadeh A, Decaestecker J, Wilmer A, et al. MELD score to predict outcome in adult patients with non-acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure. Liver Int. 2007 Apr;27(3):329-34.[Abstract]
92. Yantorno SE, Kremers WK, Ruf AE, et al. MELD is superior to King's College and Clichy's criteria to assess prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Liver Transpl. 2007 Jun;13(6):822-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Rossaro L, Chambers CC, Polson J, et al. Performance of MELD in predicting outcome in acute liver failure (Abstract S1492). Gastroenterology. 2005;128(suppl 2):A-705.
94. McPhail MJ, Farne H, Senvar N, et al. Ability of King's College criteria and Model for End-stage Liver Disease scores to predict mortality of patients with acute liver failure: a meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016 Apr;14(4):516-25.e5.[Abstract][Full Text]
95. Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, et al. APACHE II: a severity of disease classification system. Crit Care Med. 1985 Oct;13(10):818-29.[Abstract]
96. Mitchell I, Bihari D, Chang R, et al. Earlier identification of patients at risk from acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure. Crit Care Med. 1998 Feb;26(4):279-84.[Abstract]
97. Rutherford A, King LY, Hynan LS, et al; ALF Study Group. Development of an accurate index for predicting outcomes of patients with acute liver failure. Gastroenterology. 2012 Nov;143(5):1237-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
98. Koch DG, Tillman H, Durkalski V, et al. Development of a model to predict transplant-free survival of patients with acute liver failure. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016 Aug;14(8):1199-206.e2.[Abstract]
99. Stravitz RT, Kramer AH, Davern T, et al. Intensive care of patients with acute liver failure: recommendations of the U.S. Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Crit Care Med. 2007 Nov;35(11):2498-508.[Abstract]
100. Soar J, Böttiger BW, Carli P, et al. European Resuscitation Council guidelines 2021: adult advanced life support. Resuscitation. 2021 Apr;161:115-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
101. Colquhoun MC, Handley AJ, Evans TR. ABC of resuscitation. 5th ed. London: BMJ Publishing Group; 2004.
102. Chrimes N, Higgs A, Hagberg CA, et al. Preventing unrecognised oesophageal intubation: a consensus guideline from the Project for Universal Management of Airways and international airway societies. Anaesthesia. 2022 Dec;77(12):1395-415. [Abstract][Full Text]
103. Karvellas CJ, Cavazos J, Battenhouse H, et al; US Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Effects of antimicrobial prophylaxis and blood stream infections in patients with acute liver failure: a retrospective cohort study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014 Nov;12(11):1942-9.e1.[Abstract][Full Text]
104. Stravitz RT. Critical management decisions in patients with acute liver failure. Chest. 2008 Nov;134(5):1092-102.[Abstract]
105. Lee WM, Rossaro L, Fontana RJ, et al. Intravenous N-acetylcysteine improves spontaneous survival in early stage non-acetaminophen acute liver failure (Abstract 79). Hepatology. 2007 Sep;46(3):268A.
106. Singh S, Hynan LS, Lee WM; Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Improvements in hepatic serological biomarkers are associated with clinical benefit of intravenous N-acetylcysteine in early stage non-acetaminophen acute liver failure. Dig Dis Sci. 2013 May;58(5):1397-402.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. Stravitz RT, Sanyal AJ, Reisch J, et al; Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Effects of N-acetylcysteine on cytokines in non-acetaminophen acute liver failure: potential mechanism of improvement in transplant-free survival. Liver Int. 2013 Oct;33(9):1324-31.[Abstract]
108. Tillmann HL, Hadem J, Leifeld L, et al. Safety and efficacy of lamivudine in patients with severe acute or fulminant hepatitis B, a multicenter experience. J Viral Hepat. 2006 Apr;13(4):256-63.[Abstract]
109. Parekh J, Matei VM, Canas-Coto A, et al. Budd-Chiari syndrome causing acute liver failure: a multicenter case series. Liver Transpl. 2017 Feb;23(2):135-42.[Abstract]
110. Karkhanis J, Verna EC, Chang MS, et al; Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Steroid use in acute liver failure. Hepatology. 2014 Feb;59(2):612-21.[Abstract]
111. Kim WR, Lake JR, Smith JM, et al. OPTN/SRTR 2017 annual data report: liver. Am J Transplant. 2019 Feb;19(suppl 2):184-283.[Abstract][Full Text]
112. Kusminsky RE. Complications of central venous catheterization. J Am Coll Surg. 2007 Apr;204(4):681-96.[Abstract]
113. McGee DC, Gould MK. Preventing complications of central venous catheterization. N Engl J Med. 2003 Mar 20;348(12):1123-33.[Abstract][Full Text]
114. Smith RN, Nolan JP. Central venous catheters. BMJ. 2013 Nov 11;347:f6570.[Abstract][Full Text]
115. Reich DL. Monitoring in anesthesia and perioperative care. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2011.
116. Abbott Northwestern Hospital Internal Medicine Residency. Internal jugular central venous line. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
117. Bishop L, Dougherty L, Bodenham A, et al. Guidelines on the insertion and management of central venous access devices in adults. Int J Lab Hematol. 2007 Aug;29(4):261-78.[Abstract]
118. Practice guidelines for central venous access 2020: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Central Venous Access. Anesthesiology. 2020 Jan;132(1):8-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
119. Fletcher SJ, Bodenham AR. Safe placement of central venous catheters: where should the tip of the catheter lie? Br J Anaesth. 2000 Aug;85(2):188-91.[Abstract]
120. Gibson F, Bodenham A. Misplaced central venous catheters: applied anatomy and practical management. Br J Anaesth. 2013 Mar;110(3):333-46.[Abstract][Full Text]
121. Schuster M, Nave H, Piepenbrock S, et al. The carina as a landmark in central venous catheter placement. Br J Anaesth. 2000 Aug;85(2):192-4.[Abstract]
122. Letschert K, Faulstich H, Keller D, et al. Molecular characterization and inhibition of amanitin uptake into human hepatocytes. Toxicol Sci. 2006 May;91(1):140-9.[Abstract]
123. Enjalbert F, Rapior S, Nouguier-Soulé J, et al. Treatment of amatoxin poisoning: 20-year retrospective analysis. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2002;40(6):715-57.[Abstract]
124. Saliba F, Camus C, Durand F, et al. Albumin dialysis with a noncell artificial liver support device in patients with acute liver failure: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2013 Oct 15;159(8):522-31.[Abstract]
125. MacDonald AJ, Karvellas CJ. Emerging role of extracorporeal support in acute and acute-on-chronic liver failure: recent developments. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2018 Oct;39(5):625-34.[Abstract]
126. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Extracorporeal albumin dialysis for acute liver - interventional procedures guidance. 23 September 2009 [internet publication].[Full Text]
127. Katarey D, Jalan R. Update on extracorporeal liver support. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2020 Apr;26(2):180-5.[Abstract]
128. Rela M, Kaliamoorthy I, Reddy MS. Current status of auxiliary partial orthotopic liver transplantation for acute liver failure. Liver Transpl. 2016 Sep;22(9):1265-74.[Abstract][Full Text]
129. Liou IW, Larson AM. Role of liver transplantation in acute liver failure. Semin Liver Dis. 2008 May;28(2):201-9.[Abstract]
130. Nanchal R, Subramanian R, Karvellas CJ, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult acute and acute-on-chronic liver failure in the ICU: cardiovascular, endocrine, hematologic, pulmonary, and renal considerations. Crit Care Med. 2020 Mar;48(3):e173-91.[Abstract][Full Text]
131. Nanchal R, Subramanian R, Alhazzani W, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult acute and acute-on-chronic liver failure in the ICU: neurology, peri-Transplant Medicine, infectious disease, and gastroenterology considerations. Crit Care Med. 2023 May 1;51(5):657-76.[Abstract][Full Text]
132. MacDonald AJ, Speiser JL, Ganger DR, et al. Clinical and neurologic outcomes in acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure: a 21-year multicenter cohort study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021 Dec;19(12):2615-25.e3.[Abstract]
133. Kesar V, Channen L, Masood U, et al. Liver transplantation for acute liver injury in Asians is more likely due to herbal and dietary supplements. Liver Transpl. 2022 Feb;28(2):188-99.[Abstract]
134. Rolando N, Harvey F, Brahm J, et al. Prospective study of bacterial infection in acute liver failure: an analysis of fifty patients. Hepatology. 1990 Jan;11(1):49-53.[Abstract]
135. Davenport A, Will EJ, Davidson AM. Improved cardiovascular stability during continuous modes of renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients with acute hepatic and renal failure. Crit Care Med. 1993 Mar;21(3):328-38.[Abstract]
136. Davenport A, Will EJ, Davison AM. Effect of renal replacement therapy on patients with combined acute renal and fulminant hepatic failure. Kidney Int Suppl. 1993 Jun;41:S245-51.[Abstract]
137. Munoz SJ. Difficult management problems in fulminant hepatic failure. Semin Liver Dis. 1993 Nov;13(4):395-413.[Abstract]
138. Larsen FS, Wendon J. Prevention and management of brain edema in patients with acute liver failure. Liver Transpl. 2008 Oct;14(suppl 2):S90-6.[Abstract]
139. Reynolds AS, Brush B, Schiano TD, et al. Neurological monitoring in acute liver failure. Hepatology. 2019 Nov;70(5):1830-5.[Abstract]
140. Dmello D, Cruz-Flores S, Matuschak GM, et al. Moderate hypothermia with intracranial pressure monitoring as a therapeutic paradigm for the management of acute liver failure: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med. 2010 Feb;36(2):210-3.[Abstract]
141. Karvellas CJ, Todd Stravitz R, Battenhouse H, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia in acute liver failure: a multicenter retrospective cohort analysis. Liver Transpl. 2015 Jan;21(1):4-12.[Abstract][Full Text]
142. Porte RJ, Caldwell SH. The role of recombinant factor VIIa in liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2005 Aug;11(8):872-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
143. Lok AS, Ward JW, Perrillo RP, et al. Reactivation of hepatitis B during immunosuppressive therapy: potentially fatal yet preventable. Ann Intern Med. 2012 May 15;156(10):743-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
144. Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018 Apr;67(4):1560-99.[Abstract][Full Text]
145. Reddy KR, Beavers KL, Hammond SP, et al. American Gastroenterological Association Institute guideline on the prevention and treatment of hepatitis B virus reactivation during immunosuppressive drug therapy. Gastroenterology. 2015 Jan;148(1):215-9.[Abstract][Full Text]