Highlights & Basics
- Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may develop (either immediately or delayed) following exposure to a stressful event or situation of an exceptionally threatening or catastrophic nature.
- According to DSM-5-TR, PTSD is characterized by 4 groups of symptoms: intrusion symptoms, avoidance, negative alterations in cognition and mood, and alterations in arousal and reactivity. These symptoms must persist for more than 1 month and cause functional impairment for a diagnosis to be made.
- More often than not, presentation is comorbid with conditions such as depression, anxiety, anger, and substance use disorder.
- Assessment should cover physical, psychological, and social needs, and an assessment of risk: this can be facilitated by the use of screening questionnaires and a clinical interview schedule.
- Trauma-focused psychological treatments are the most effective treatment. Pharmacotherapy may be used in patients who do not respond to, cannot tolerate, do not want, or do not have access to psychological therapies.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
Other Factors
Diagnostics Tests
Treatment Options
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Citations
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.[Full Text]
Phoenix Australia. Australian guidelines for the prevention and treatment of acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and complex PTSD. 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Post-traumatic stress disorder. Dec 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Benedek DM, Friedman MJ, Zatzick D, et al. Guideline watch (March 2009): Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. 2009 [internet publication].[Full Text]
- US Department of Veterans Affairs (PTSD): Assessment overview
- US Department of Veterans Affairs (PTSD): PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5)
- US Department of Veterans Affairs: Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ)
- US Department of Veterans Affairs (PTSD): Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS-5)
- The International Trauma Consortium. International Trauma Questionnaire
- US Department of Veterans Affairs: Clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5)
- US Department of Veterans Affairs: PTSD Symptom Scale - Interview for DSM-5 (PSS-I-5)
- US Department of Veterans Affairs: National Center for PTSD
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Foundation of America
1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.[Full Text]
2. World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and health related problems (ICD). 11th revision. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
3. Darves-Bornoz JM, Alonso J, de Girolamo G, et al. Main traumatic events in Europe: PTSD in the European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders Survey. J Trauma Stress. 2008 Oct;21(5):455-62.[Abstract]
4. De Vries GJ, Olff, M. The lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the Netherlands. J Trauma Stress. 2009 Aug;22(4):259-67.[Abstract]
5. Hauffa R, Rief W, Brähler E, et al. Lifetime traumatic experiences and posttraumatic stress disorder in the German population: results of a representative population survey. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2011 Dec;199(12):934-9.[Abstract]
6. Mills KL, McFarlane AC, Slade T, et al. Assessing the prevalence of trauma exposure in epidemiological surveys. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2011 May;45(5):407-15.[Abstract]
7. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD, et al. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998 Jul;55(7):626-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
8. Galea S, Brewin CR, Gruber M, et al. Exposure to hurricane-related stressors and mental illness after Hurricane Katrina. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007 Dec;64(12):1427-34.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, et al. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005 Jun;62(6):593-602.[Abstract][Full Text]
10. Narrow WE, Rae DS, Robins LN, et al. Revised prevalence estimates of mental disorders in the United States: using a clinical significance criterion to reconcile 2 surveys' estimates. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002 Feb;59(2):115-23.[Abstract][Full Text]
11. Williams DR, Herman A, Stein DJ, et al. Twelve-month mental disorders in South Africa: prevalence, service use and demographic correlates in the population-based South African Stress and Health Study. Psychol Med. 2008 Feb;38(2):211-20.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. McManus S, Meltzer H, Wessely S. Posttraumatic stress disorder. In: McManus S, Meltzer H, Brugha T, et al, eds. Adult psychiatric morbidity in England, 2007: results of a household survey. London, UK: The NHS Information Centre for health and social care; 2009.
13. Brewin CR, Andrews B, Valentine JD. Meta-analysis of risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000 Oct;68(5):748-66.[Abstract]
14. Ozer EJ, Best SR, Lipsey TL, et al. Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2003 Jan;129(1):52-73.[Abstract]
15. Foa EB, Kozak MJ. Emotional processing of fear: exposure to corrective information. Psychol Bull. 1986 Jan;99(1):20-35.[Abstract]
16. Brewin CR, Dalgleish T, Joseph S. A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Rev. 1996 Oct;103(4):670-86.[Abstract]
17. Ehlers A, Clark DM. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2000 Apr;38(4):319-45.[Abstract]
18. Gilbertson MW, Shenton ME, Ciszewski A, et al. Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nat Neurosci. 2002 Nov;5(11):1242-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
19. Shin LM, Rauch SL, Pitman RK. Amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and hippocampal function in PTSD. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006 Jul;1071:67-79.[Abstract]
20. Otte C, Lenoci M, Metzler T, et al. Effects of metyrapone on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sleep in women with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Apr 15;61(8):952-6.[Abstract]
21. Shalev A. Acute stress reactions in adults. Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Apr 1;51(7):532-43.[Abstract]
22. Meewisse M, Reitsma JB, De Vries G, et al. Cortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2007 Nov;191:387-92.[Abstract][Full Text]
23. Bisson JI. The neurobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry. 2009;8:288-9.
24. Resnick HS, Kilpatrick DG, Dansky BS, et al. Prevalence of civilian trauma and PTSD in a representative national sample of women. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1993 Dec;61(6):984-91.[Abstract]
25. Kilpatrick DG, Ruggiero KJ, Acierno R, et al. Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: results from the National Survey of Adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2003 Aug;71(4):692-700.[Abstract]
26. Galea S, Nandi A, Vlahov D. The epidemiology of post-traumatic stress disorder after disasters. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:78-91.[Abstract]
27. Neria Y, Gross R, Olfson M, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in primary care one year after the 9/11 attacks. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2006 May-Jun;28(3):213-22.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Kitzmann KM, Gaylord NK, Holt AR, et al. Child witnesses to domestic violence: a meta-analytic review. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2003 Apr;71(2):339-52.[Abstract]
29. Norris FH, Friedman MJ, Watson PJ, et al. 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry. 2002 Fall;65(3):207-39.[Abstract]
30. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995 Dec;52(12):1048-60.[Abstract]
31. Acierno R, Ruggiero KJ, Galea S, et al. Psychological sequelae resulting from the 2004 Florida hurricanes: implications for post-disaster intervention. Am J Public Health. 2007 Apr;97 (Suppl 1):S103-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
32. Friedman MJ, Schnurr PP, McDonagh-Coyle A. Post-traumatic stress disorder in the military veteran. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1994 Jun;17(2):265-77.[Abstract]
33. Hoge CW, McGurk D, Thomas JL, et al. Mild traumatic brain injury in U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jan 31;358(5):453-63.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Briere J. Psychological assessment of adult posttraumatic states. 1st ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1997:1-23.
35. Saunders BE. Understanding children exposed to violence: toward an integration of overlapping fields. J Interpers Violence. 2003 Apr;18(4):356-76.
36. Amstadter AB, McCart MR, Ruggiero KJ. Psychosocial interventions for adults with crime-related PTSD. Prof Psychol Res Pr. 2007;38(6):640-51.
37. Norris FH, Kaniasty K. Received and perceived social support in times of stress: a test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1996 Sep;71(3):498-511.[Abstract]
38. Acierno R, Kilpatrick DG, Resnick RS. Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults relative to criminal victimization: prevalence, risk factors, and comorbidity. In: Saigh PA, Bremner JD, eds. Posttraumatic stress disorder: a comprehensive text. Boston, MA: Allyn and Baron; 1999:44-68.
39. Yehuda R. Post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med. 2002 Jan 10;346(2):108-14.[Abstract]
40. Acierno R, Ruggiero KJ, Kilpatrick DG, et al. Risk and protective factors for psychopathology among older versus younger adults following the 2004 Florida hurricanes. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006 Dec;14(12):1051-9.[Abstract]
41. Acierno R, Brady K, Gray M, et al. Psychopathology following interpersonal violence: a comparison of risk factors in older and younger adults. J Clin Geropsychol. 2002 Jan;8(1):13-23.
42. Phoenix Australia. Australian guidelines for the prevention and treatment of acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and complex PTSD. 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
43. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Post-traumatic stress disorder. Dec 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
44. Benedek DM, Friedman MJ, Zatzick D, et al. Guideline watch (March 2009): Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. 2009 [internet publication].[Full Text]
45. Bisson JI. Post-traumatic stress disorder. BMJ. 2007 Apr 14;334(7597):789-93.[Abstract][Full Text]
46. Hobfoll SE, Watson P, Bell CC, et al. Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: empirical evidence. Psychiatry. 2007 Winter;70(4):283-315.[Abstract]
47. Bertolini F, Robertson L, Bisson JI, et al. Early pharmacological interventions for universal prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Feb 10;(2):CD013443.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Bryant RA, Harvey AG. Delayed-onset posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective evaluation. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2002 Apr;36(2):205-9.[Abstract]
49. Ehlers A, Mayou RA, Bryant B. Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. J Abnorm Psychol. 1998 Aug;107(3):508-19.[Abstract]
50. Carty J, O'Donnell ML, Creamer M. Delayed-onset PTSD: a prospective study of injury survivors. J Affect Disord. 2006 Feb;90(2-3):257-61.[Abstract]
51. Comijs HC, Penninx BW, Knipscheer KP, et al. Psychological distress in victims of elder mistreatment: the effects of social support and coping. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 1999 Jul;54(4):P240-5.[Abstract]
52. Gray MJ, Acierno R. Symptom presentations of older adult crime victims: description of a clinical sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2002;16(3):299-309.[Abstract]
53. Mueser KT, Goodman LB, Trumbetta SL, et al. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998 Jun;66(3):493-9.[Abstract]
54. Cusack KJ, Frueh BC, Brady KT. Trauma history screening in a community mental health center. Psychiatr Serv. 2004 Feb;55(2):157-62.[Abstract]
55. Brewin CR, Rose S, Andrews B, et al. Brief screening instrument for post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2002 Aug;181:158-62.[Abstract][Full Text]
56. Foa EB, McLean CP, Zang Y, et al. Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale for DSM-5 (PDS-5). Psychol Assess. 2016 Oct;28(10):1166-71.[Abstract]
57. Weathers FW, Blake DD, Schnurr PP, et al; US National Center for PTSD. Clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5). 24 Oct 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
58. Geier TJ, Hunt JC, Nelson LD, et al. Detecting PTSD in a traumatically injured population: The diagnostic utility of the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5. Depress Anxiety. 2019 Feb;36(2):170-8.[Abstract]
59. Cloitre M, Shevlin M, Brewin CR, et al. The International Trauma Questionnaire: development of a self-report measure of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2018 Dec;138(6):536-46.[Abstract]
60. Brewin CR. Systematic review of screening instruments for adults at risk of PTSD. JJ Trauma Stress. 2005 Feb;18(1):53-62.[Abstract]
61. Foa EB, McLean CP, Zang Y, et al. Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Scale Interview for DSM-5 (PSSI-5). Psychol Assess. 2016 Oct;28(10):1159-65.[Abstract]
62. Bondjers K, Hyland P, Roberts NP, et al. Validation of a clinician-administered diagnostic measure of ICD-11 PTSD and Complex PTSD: the International Trauma Interview in a Swedish sample. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2019 Oct 4;10(1):1665617.[Abstract][Full Text]
63. Hoge CW, Terhakopian A, Castro CA, et al. Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health care visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war veterans. Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Jan;164(1):150-3.[Abstract]
64. Iversen AC, van Staden L, Hughes JH, et al. The prevalence of common mental disorders and PTSD in the UK military: using data from a clinical interview-based study. BMC Psychiatry. 2009 Oct 30;9:68.[Abstract][Full Text]
65. Bliese PD, Wright KM, Adler AB, et al. Timing of postcombat mental health assessments. Psychol Services. 2007;4(3):141-8.
66. Adler AB, Bliese PD, McGurk D, et al. Battlemind debriefing and battlemind training as early interventions with soldiers returning from Iraq: randomization by platoon. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009 Oct;77(5):928-40.[Abstract]
67. American College of Surgeons. Best practices guidelines: screening and intervention for mental health disorders and substance use and misuse in the acute trauma patient. Dec 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
68. Ursano RJ, Bell C, Eth S, et al; American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Nov;161(11 suppl):3-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
69. Gartlehner G, Forneris CA, Brownley KA, et al. Interventions for the prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults after exposure to psychological trauma. Comparative effectiveness review no. 109. AHRQ Publication No. 13-EHC062-EF. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2013.[Abstract][Full Text]
70. Belsher BE, Beech E, Evatt D, et al. Present-centered therapy (PCT) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Nov 18;(11):CD012898.[Abstract][Full Text]
71. Bastos MH, Furuta M, Small R, et al. Debriefing interventions for the prevention of psychological trauma in women following childbirth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Apr 10;(4):CD007194.[Abstract][Full Text]
72. Ponniah K, Hollon SD. Empirically supported psychological treatments for adult acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: a review. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(12):1086-109.[Abstract]
73. Bisson JI, Roberts NP, Andrew M, et al. Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Dec 13;(12):CD003388.[Abstract][Full Text]
74. Steenkamp MM, Litz BT, Hoge CW, et al. Psychotherapy for military-related PTSD: a review of randomized clinical trials. JAMA. 2015 Aug 4;314(5):489-500.[Abstract]
75. Jonas DE, Cusack K, Forneris CA, et al. Psychological and pharmacological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Comparative effectiveness review No. 92. AHRQ publication no. 13-EHC011-EF. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2013.[Abstract][Full Text]
76. Markowitz JC, Petkova E, Neria Y, et al. Is exposure necessary? A randomized clinical trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 2015 May;172(5):430-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
77. Coventry PA, Meader N, Melton H, et al. Psychological and pharmacological interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid mental health problems following complex traumatic events: systematic review and component network meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2020 Aug;17(8):e1003262.[Abstract][Full Text]
78. Markowitz JC, Neria Y, Lovell K, et al. History of sexual trauma moderates psychotherapy outcome for posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2017 Aug;34(8):692-700.[Abstract][Full Text]
79. Frost ND, Laska KM, Wampold BE. The evidence for present-centered therapy as a treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 2014 Feb;27(1):1-8.[Abstract]
80. Suomi A, Evans L, Rodgers B, et al. Couple and family therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Dec 4;12:CD011257.[Abstract][Full Text]
81. Hetrick SE, Purcell R, Garner B, et al. Combined pharmacotherapy and psychological therapies for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Jul 7;(7):CD007316.[Abstract][Full Text]
82. Merz J, Schwarzer G, Gerger H. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of pharmacological, psychotherapeutic, and combination treatments in adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: a network meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 Sep 1;76(9):904-13.[Abstract][Full Text]
83. Bartzokis G, Lu PH, Turner J, et al. Adjunctive risperidone in the treatment of chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Mar 1;57(5):474-9.[Abstract]
84. Berger W, Mendlowicz MV, Marques-Portella C, et al. Pharmacologic alternatives to antidepressants in posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Mar 17;33(2):169-80.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. Williams T, Phillips NJ, Stein DJ, et al. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Mar 2;(3):CD002795.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Hoskins M, Pearce J, Bethell A, et al. Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Feb;206(2):93-100.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Watts BV, Schnurr PP, Mayo L, et al. Meta-analysis of the efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013 Jun;74(6):e541-50.[Abstract]
88. Hoskins MD, Bridges J, Sinnerton R et al. Pharmacological therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of monotherapy, augmentation and head-to-head approaches. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2021;12:1.[Full Text]
89. Forbes D, Bisson JI, Monson CM, et al, eds. Effective treatments for PTSD, third edition. Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2020.
90. Rothbaum BO, Killeen TK, Davidson JR, et al. Placebo-controlled trial of risperidone augmentation for selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor-resistant civilian posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008 Apr;69(4):520-5.[Abstract]
91. Krystal JH, Rosenheck RA, Cramer JA, et al. Adjunctive risperidone treatment for antidepressant-resistant symptoms of chronic military service-related PTSD: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2011 Aug 3;306(5):493-502.[Abstract]
92. Davidson J, Kudler H, Smith R, et al. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990 Mar;47(3):259-66.[Abstract]
93. Kosten TR, Frank JB, Dan E, et al. Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder using phenelzine or imipramine. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1991 Jun;179(6):366-70.[Abstract]
94. Davidson JR, Weisler RH, Butterfield MI, et al. Mirtazapine vs. placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot trial. Biol Psychiatry. 2003 Jan 15;53(2):188-91.[Abstract]
95. Batelaan NM, Bosman RC, Muntingh A, et al. Risk of relapse after antidepressant discontinuation in anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis of relapse prevention trials. BMJ. 2017 Sep 13;358:j3927.[Abstract][Full Text]
96. Roberts NP, Roberts PA, Jones N, et al. Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid substance use disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Apr 4;(4):CD010204.[Abstract][Full Text]
97. van den Berg DP, de Bont PA, van der Vleugel, et al. Prolonged exposure vs eye movement desensitization and reprocessing vs waiting list for posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with a psychotic disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;72(3):259-67.[Abstract]
98. Yeh MS, Mari JJ, Costa MC, et al. A double-blind randomized controlled trial to study the efficacy of topiramate in a civilian sample of PTSD. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2011 Oct;17(5):305-10.[Abstract]
99. Tucker P, Trautman RP, Wyatt DB, et al. Efficacy and safety of topiramate monotherapy in civilian posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Feb;68(2):201-6.[Abstract]
100. Morgenthaler TI, Auerbach S, Casey KR, et al. Position paper for the treatment of nightmare disorder in adults: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine position paper. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018 Jun 15;14(6):1041-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
101. Strauss JL, Lang AJ, Schnurr PP; National Center for PTSD. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for PTSD. 7 Feb 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
102. US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov. NightWare Open Enrollment Study (NWOES). Mar 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
103. Simon N, Robertson L, Lewis C, et al. Internet-based cognitive and behavioural therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 May 20;5:CD011710.[Abstract][Full Text]
104. Difede J, Cukor J, Jayasinghe N, et al. Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder following September 11, 2001. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Nov;68(11):1639-47.[Abstract]
105. Kothgassner OD, Goreis A, Kafka JX, et al. Virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a meta-analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2019 Aug 19;10(1):1654782.[Abstract][Full Text]
106. Eshuis LV, van Gelderen MJ, van Zuiden M, et al. Efficacy of immersive PTSD treatments: a systematic review of virtual and augmented reality exposure therapy and a meta-analysis of virtual reality exposure therapy. J Psychiatr Res. 2021 Nov;143:516-27.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. Baker JF, Cates ME, Luthin DR. D-cycloserine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Ment Health Clin. 2017 Mar;7(2):88-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
108. Ori R, Amos T, Bergman H, et al. Augmentation of cognitive and behavioural therapies (CBT) with D-cycloserine for anxiety and related disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 May 10;(5):CD007803.[Abstract][Full Text]
109. Ramakrishnan N, Lijffijt M, Green CE, et al. Neurophysiological and clinical effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist lanicemine (BHV-5500) in PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Depress Anxiety. 2021 Nov;38(11):1108-19.[Abstract]
110. Hoskins MD, Sinnerton R, Nakamura A, et al. Pharmacological-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2021 Jan 15;12(1):1853379.[Abstract][Full Text]
111. Pollack MH, Hoge EA, Worthington JJ, et al. Eszpolicone for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder and associated insomnia: a ramdomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011 Jul;72(7):892-7.[Abstract]
112. Dowd SM, Zalta AK, Burgess HJ, et al. Double-blind randomized controlled study of the efficacy, safety and tolerability of eszopiclone vs placebo for the treatment of patients with post-traumatic stress disorder and insomnia. World J Psychiatry. 2020 Mar 19;10(3):21-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
113. Krystal JH, Chow B, Vessicchio J, et al. Design of the National Adaptive Trial for PTSD-related Insomnia (NAP Study), VA Cooperative Study Program (CSP) #2016. Contemp Clin Trials. 2021 Oct;109:106540.[Abstract]
114. United States Department of Veterans Affairs. VA/DOD clinical practice guideline for the management of posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder. Jun 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
115. American Psychological Association. Clinical practice guideline for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Feb 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
116. Gaebel W, Großimlinghaus I, Mucic D, et al. EPA guidance on eMental health interventions in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Eur Psychiatry. 2017 Mar;41:140-52.[Abstract]
117. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Common mental health problems: identification and pathways to care. May 2011 [internet publication].[Full Text]
118. Shalev AY, Freedman S, Peri T, et al. Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 1998 May;155(5):630-7.[Abstract]
119. Galea S, Ahern J, Resnick H, et al. Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. N Engl J Med. 2002 Mar 28;346(13):982-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
120. Foa EB, Dancu CV, Hembree EA, et al. A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999 Apr;67(2):194-200.[Abstract]
121. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO, Riggs DS, et al. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: a comparison between cognitive behavioral procedures and counseling. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1991 Oct;59(5):715-23.[Abstract]
122. Foa EB, Hembree EA, Cahill SP, et al. Randomized trial of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder with and without cognitive restructuring: outcome at academic and community clinics. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005 Oct;73(5):953-64.[Abstract]
123. Foa EB, Zoellner LA, Feeny NC, et al. Does imaginal exposure exacerbate PTSD symptoms? J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002 Aug;70(4):1022-8.[Abstract]
124. Resick PA, Nishith P, Weaver TL, et al. A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002 Aug;70(4):867-79.[Abstract][Full Text]
125. Van Etten ML, Taylor S. Comparative efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Psychother. 1998;5(3):126-44.
126. Song H, Fang F, Arnberg FK, et al. Stress related disorders and risk of cardiovascular disease: population based, sibling controlled cohort study. BMJ. 2019 Apr 10;365:l1255.[Abstract][Full Text]
127. Günak MM, Billings J, Carratu E, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder as a risk factor for dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2020 Nov;217(5):600-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
128. Song H, Fang F, Tomasson G, et al. Association of stress-related disorders with subsequent autoimmune disease. JAMA. 2018 Jun 19;319(23):2388-400.[Abstract][Full Text]
129. Cahill SP, Rauch SA, Hembree EA, et al. Effect of cognitive-behavioral treatments for PTSD on anger. J Cogn Psychother. 2003 April;17(2):113-31.
130. Coffey SF, Schumacher JA, Brimo ML, et al. Exposure therapy for substance abusers with PTSD: translating research into practice. Behav Modif. 2005 Jan;29(1):10-38.[Abstract]
131. Song H, Fall K, Fang F, et al. Stress related disorders and subsequent risk of life threatening infections: population based sibling controlled cohort study. BMJ. 2019 Oct 23;367:l5784.[Abstract][Full Text]
