HIV-related opportunistic infections - Symptoms, Causes, Images, and Treatment Options

Diseases

Highlights & Basics

Key Highlights

HIV-related opportunistic infection (OI) risk in people living with HIV (PLWH) increases as the CD4 count declines. Risk also increases in patients who are not virologically suppressed, regardless of the CD4 count.
For most PLWH with an acute OI, antiretroviral treatment (ART) should be considered within the first 2 weeks of initiation of treatment. However, in patients with tuberculosis (TB) it might be appropriate to wait for a therapeutic response before starting ART.
The use of ART among patients treated for OIs is complicated by drug interactions, drug toxicity profiles, and immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). IRIS has been observed most commonly with mycobacterial infections (TB and disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex), but may also develop with other OIs.
Primary and secondary prophylaxis against OIs is essential in the prevention of an initial or recurrent episode of OIs in PLWH.
Prophylaxis against many OIs can be discontinued for patients who respond to ART and maintain a CD4 count above the recommended threshold for more than 3 months. However, if the CD4 count decreases below that threshold, prophylaxis should be resumed.

Quick Reference

History & Exam
- Key Factors
- Other Factors
More information...
Diagnostics Tests
More information...
Treatment Options
More information...

Definition

Epidemiology

Etiology

Pathophysiology

Citations

Key Articles

National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
World Health Organization. Guidelines for diagnosing, preventing and managing cryptococcal disease among adults, adolescents and children living with HIV. Jun 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA, et al. An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007 Feb 15;175(4):367-416.[Abstract][Full Text]
Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Feb 1;50(3):291-322.[Abstract][Full Text]
Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Feb 15;62(4):e1-50.[Abstract][Full Text]

Referenced Articles

1. National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
2. Jones BE, Young SM, Antoniskis D, et al. Relationship of the manifestations of tuberculosis to CD4 cell counts in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Nov;148(5):1292-7.[Abstract]
3. Breen RA, Smith CJ, Cropley I, et al. Does immune reconstitution syndrome promote active tuberculosis in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy? AIDS. 2005 Jul 22;19(11):1201-6.[Abstract]
4. Smith CJ, Ryom L, Weber R, et al. Trends in underlying causes of death in people with HIV from 1999 to 2011 (D:A:D): a multicohort collaboration. Lancet. 2014 Jul 19;384(9939):241-8.[Abstract]
5. Croxford S, Miller RF, Post FA, et al. Cause of death among HIV patients in London in 2016. HIV Med. 2019 Oct;20(9):628-33.[Abstract][Full Text]
6. Hanna DB, Gupta LS, Jones LE, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in the HAART era in New York City. AIDS Care. 2007 Feb;19(2):264-72.[Abstract]
7. Bonnet F, Lewden C, May T, et al. Mortalite 2000 Study Group. Opportunistic infections as causes of death in HIV-infected patients in the HAART era in France. Scand J Infect Dis. 2005;37(6-7):482-7.[Abstract]
8. Lewden C, Salmon D, Morlat P, et al. Mortality 2000 study group. Causes of death among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: emerging role of hepatitis and cancers, persistent role of AIDS. Int J Epidemiol. 2005 Feb;34(1):121-30.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. UNAIDS. Global HIV & AIDS statistics -- fact sheet. 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
10. GBD 2019 Tuberculosis Collaborators. Global, regional, and national sex differences in the global burden of tuberculosis by HIV status, 1990-2019: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022 Feb;22(2):222-41.[Abstract][Full Text]
11. Patel PK, Erlandsen JE, Kirkpatrick WR, et al. The changing epidemiology of oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients with HIV/AIDS in the era of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Treat. 2012;2012:262471.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Edwards D, Kirkpatrick CH. The immunology of mycobacterial diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986 Nov;134(5):1062-71.[Abstract]
13. Cayrou C, Turenne C, Behr MA, et al. Genotyping of Mycobacterium avium complex organisms using multispacer sequence typing. Microbiology (Reading). 2010 Mar;156(pt 3):687-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
14. Karakousis PC, Moore RD, Chaisson RE. Mycobacterium avium complex in patients with HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004 Sep;4(9):557-65.[Abstract]
15. Drew WL. Diagnosis of cytomegalovirus infection. Rev Infect Dis. 1988 Jul-Aug;10(suppl 3):S468-76.[Abstract]
16. Staras SA, Flanders WD, Dollard SC, et al. Cytomegalovirus seroprevalence and childhood sources of infection: a population-based study among pre-adolescents in the United States. J Clin Virol. 2008 Nov;43(3):266-71.[Abstract]
17. Handsfield HH, Chandler SH, Caine VA, et al. Cytomegalovirus infection in sex partners: evidence for sexual transmission. J Infect Dis. 1985 Feb;151(2):344-8.[Abstract]
18. Stringer JR, Beard CB, Miller RF, et al. A new name (Pneumocystis jiroveci) for Pneumocystis from humans. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002 Sep;8(9):891-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
19. Montoya JG, Liesenfeld O. Toxoplasmosis. Lancet. 2004 Jun 12;363(9425):1965-76.[Abstract]
20. Luft BJ, Chua A. Central nervous system toxoplasmosis in HIV pathogenesis, diagnosis, and therapy. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2000 Aug;2(4):358-62.[Abstract]
21. Nosanchuk JD, Shoham S, Fries BC, et al. Evidence of zoonotic transmission of Cryptococcus neoformans from a pet cockatoo to an immunocompromised patient. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Feb 1;132(3):205-8.[Abstract]
22. Sorvillo F, Beall G, Turner PA, et al. Incidence and factors associated with extrapulmonary cryptococcosis among persons with HIV infection in Los Angeles County. AIDS. 1997 Apr;11(5):673-9.[Abstract]
23. Reyna-Rodríguez IL, Ocampo-Candiani J, Chavez-Alvarez S. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis: an update. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2020 Oct;21(5):681-96.[Abstract]
24. Kirkland TN, Fierer J. Coccidioidomycosis: a reemerging infectious disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 1996 Jul-Sep;2(3):192-9.[Abstract]
25. Anstead GM, Graybill JR. Coccidioidomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006 Sep;20(3):621-43.[Abstract]
26. Hellerstein MK, McCune JM. T cell turnover in HIV-1 disease. Immunity. 1997 Nov;7(5):583-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Liu X, Liu H, Guo Z, et al. Association of asymptomatic oral candidal carriage, oral candidiasis and CD4 lymphocyte count in HIV-positive patients in China. Oral Dis. 2006 Jan;12(1):41-4.[Abstract]
28. Gottfredsson M, Cox GM, Indridason OS, et al. Association of plasma levels of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA and oropharyngeal Candida colonization. J Infect Dis. 1999 Aug;180(2):534-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
29. Yeh CK, Fox PC, Ship JA, et al. Oral defense mechanisms are impaired early in HIV-1 infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1988;1(4):361-6.[Abstract]
30. Meltzer MS, Skillman DR, Gomatos PJ, et al. Role of mononuclear phagocytes in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Annu Rev Immunol. 1990;8:169-94.[Abstract]
31. Gray JR, Rabeneck L. Atypical mycobacterial infection of the gastrointestinal tract in AIDS patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 1989 Dec;84(12):1521-4.[Abstract]
32. Stacey AR. Isolation of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare-scrofulaceum complex from faeces of patients with AIDS. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1986 Nov 8;293(6556):1194.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. Gerna G, Parea M, Percivalle E, et al. Human cytomegalovirus viraemia in HIV-1-seropositive patients at various clinical stages of infection. AIDS. 1990 Oct;4(10):1027-31.[Abstract]
34. Gigliotti F, Wright TW. Immunopathogenesis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2005 Nov 14;7(26):1-16.[Abstract]
35. Subauste CS, Remington JS. Immunity to Toxoplasma gondii. Curr Opin Immunol. 1993 Aug;5(4):532-7.[Abstract]
36. Hunter CA, Lieberman LA, Mason N, et al. Costimulation in resistance to infection and development of immune pathology: lessons from toxoplasma. Immunol Res. 2003;27(2-3):331-40.[Abstract]
37. Maziarz EK, Perfect JR. Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2016 Mar;30(1):179-206.[Abstract]
38. Setianingrum F, Rautemaa-Richardson R, Denning DW. Pulmonary cryptococcosis: a review of pathobiology and clinical aspects. Med Mycol. 2019 Feb 1;57(2):133-50.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Dionne SO, Podany AB, Ruiz YW, et al. Spherules derived from Coccidioides posadasii promote human dendritic cell maturation and activation. Infect Immun. 2006 Apr;74(4):2415-22.[Abstract][Full Text]
40. Ampel NM, Dols CL, Galgiani JN. Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: results of a prospective study in a coccidioidal endemic area. Am J Med. 1993 Mar;94(3):235-40.[Abstract]
41. Sonnenberg P, Glynn JR, Fielding K, et al. How soon after infection with HIV does the risk of tuberculosis start to increase? A retrospective cohort study in South African gold miners. J Infect Dis. 2005 Jan 15;191(2):150-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
42. Havlir DV, Getahun H, Sanne I, et al. Opportunities and challenges for HIV care in overlapping HIV and TB epidemics. JAMA. 2008 Jul 23;300(4):423-30.[Abstract]
43. Ellis PK, Martin WJ, Dodd PJ. CD4 count and tuberculosis risk in HIV-positive adults not on ART: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PeerJ. 2017;5:e4165.[Abstract][Full Text]
44. Phair J, Munoz A, Detels R, et al. The risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1990 Jan 18;322(3):161-5.[Abstract]
45. Grant IH, Gold JW, Rosenblum M, et al. Toxoplasma gondii serology in HIV-infected patients: the development of central nervous system toxoplasmosis in AIDS. AIDS. 1990 Jun;4(6):519-21.[Abstract]
46. Israelski DM, Chmiel JS, Poggensee L, et al. Prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in a cohort of homosexual men at risk of AIDS and toxoplasmic encephalitis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr (1988). 1993 Apr;6(4):414-8.[Abstract]
47. Mathews WC, Fullerton SC. Use of a clinical laboratory database to estimate Toxoplasma seroprevalence among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Overcoming bias in secondary analysis of clinical records. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1994 Aug;118(8):807-10.[Abstract]
48. Jones JL, Kruszon-Moran D, Sanders-Lewis K, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection in the United States, 1999 2004, decline from the prior decade. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007 Sep;77(3):405-10.[Abstract]
49. Pinner RW, Hajjeh RA, Powderly WG. Prospects for preventing cryptococcosis in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Aug;21(suppl 1):S103-7.[Abstract]
50. Levitz SM. The ecology of Cryptococcus neoformans and the epidemiology of cryptococcosis. Rev Infect Dis. 1991 Nov-Dec;13(6):1163-9.[Abstract]
51. Nightingale SD, Byrd LT, Southern PM, et al. Incidence of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex bacteremia in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. J Infect Dis. 1992 Jun;165(6):1082-5.[Abstract]
52. Sax PE. Opportunistic infections in HIV disease: down but not out. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2001 Jun;15(2):433-55.[Abstract]
53. Remis RS, Liu J, Loutfy MR, et al. Prevalence of sexually transmitted viral and bacterial infections in HIV-positive and HIV-negative men who have sex with men in Toronto. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):e0158090.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. Lin RY, Goodhart PT. Population characteristics of tuberculosis in an HIV/AIDS registry from an East Harlem Hospital. N Y State J Med. 1991 Jun;91(6):239-42.[Abstract]
55. Bate SL, Dollard SC, Cannon MJ. Cytomegalovirus seroprevalence in the United States: the national health and nutrition examination surveys, 1988-2004. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Jun 1;50(11):1439-47.[Abstract][Full Text]
56. Jackson JB, Erice A, Englund JA, et al. Prevalence of cytomegalovirus antibody in hemophiliacs and homosexuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Transfusion. 1988 Mar-Apr;28(2):187-9.[Abstract]
57. Bennett DE, Courval JM, Onorato I, et al. Prevalence of tuberculosis infection in the United States population: the national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999-2000. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 Feb 1;177(3):348-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
58. Carr A, Tindall B, Penny R, et al. Trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole appears more effective than aerosolized pentamidine as secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. AIDS. 1992 Feb;6(2):165-71.[Abstract]
59. Podzamczer D, Salazar A, Jimenez J, et al. Intermittent trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole compared with dapsone-pyrimethamine for the simultaneous primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. Ann Intern Med. 1995 May 15;122(10):755-61.[Abstract]
60. Trikalinos TA, Ioannidis JP. Discontinuation of Pneumocystis carinii prophylaxis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: a meta-analysis and decision analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Dec 1;33(11):1901-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
61. Kovacs JA, Masur H. Prophylaxis against opportunistic infections in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2000 May 11;342(19):1416-29.[Abstract]
62. Furrer H, Opravil M, Bernasconi E, et al. Stopping primary prophylaxis in HIV-1-infected patients at high risk of toxoplasma encephalitis. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Lancet. 2000 Jun 24;355(9222):2217-8.[Abstract]
63. Raby E, Moyo M, Devendra A, et al. The effects of HIV on the sensitivity of a whole blood IFN-gamma release assay in Zambian adults with active tuberculosis. PLoS One. 2008 Jun 18;3(6):e2489.[Abstract][Full Text]
64. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis: module 3: diagnosis: tests for TB infection.Sep 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
65. Sterling TR, Njie G, Zenner D, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020 Feb 14;69(1):1-11.[Abstract][Full Text]
66. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis: module 1: prevention: tuberculosis preventive treatment. Mar 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
67. Nolt D, Starke JR. Tuberculosis infection in children and adolescents: testing and treatment. Pediatrics. 2021 Dec 1;148(6):e2021054663.[Abstract][Full Text]
68. Borisov AS, Bamrah Morris S, Njie GJ, et al. Update of recommendations for use of once-weekly isoniazid-rifapentine regimen to treat latent mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018 Jun 29;67(25):723-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
69. Ronald LA, FitzGerald JM, Bartlett-Esquilant G, et al. Treatment with isoniazid or rifampin for latent tuberculosis infection: population-based study of hepatotoxicity, completion and costs. Eur Respir J. 2020 Mar;55(3):1902048.[Abstract][Full Text]
70. World Health Organization. Guidelines for diagnosing, preventing and managing cryptococcal disease among adults, adolescents and children living with HIV. Jun 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
71. Masur H, Ognibene FP, Yarchoan R, et al. CD4 counts as predictors of opportunistic pneumonias in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Ann Intern Med. 1989 Aug 1;111(3):223-31.[Abstract]
72. Wood R, Maartens G, Lombard CJ. Risk factors for developing tuberculosis in HIV-1-infected adults from communities with a low or very high incidence of tuberculosis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000 Jan 1;23(1):75-80.[Abstract]
73. Post FA, Wood R, Pillay GP. Pulmonary tuberculosis in HIV infection: radiographic appearance is related to CD4+ T-lymphocyte count. Tuber Lung Dis. 1995 Dec;76(6):518-21.[Abstract]
74. Pepper T, Joseph P, Mwenya C, et al. Normal chest radiography in pulmonary tuberculosis: implications for obtaining respiratory specimen cultures. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2008 Apr;12(4):397-403.[Abstract]
75. Greenberg SD, Frager D, Suster B, et al. Active pulmonary tuberculosis in patients with AIDS: spectrum of radiographic findings (including a normal appearance). Radiology. 1994 Oct;193(1):115-9.[Abstract]
76. Lewinsohn DM, Leonard MK, LoBue PA, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Infectious Diseases Society of America/Centers for Disease Control and prevention clinical practice guidelines: diagnosis of tuberculosis in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2017 Jan 15;64(2):e1-33.[Abstract][Full Text]
77. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis. Module 3: diagnosis - rapid diagnostics for tuberculosis detection 2021 update. Jul 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
78. Zifodya JS, Kreniske JS, Schiller I, et al. Xpert Ultra versus Xpert MTB/RIF for pulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Feb 22;2:CD009593.[Abstract][Full Text]
79. Shapiro AE, Ross JM, Yao M, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert Ultra assays for screening for pulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults, irrespective of signs or symptoms. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Mar 23;3(3):CD013694.[Abstract][Full Text]
80. Pillay S, Steingart KR, Davies GR, et al. Xpert MTB/XDR for detection of pulmonary tuberculosis and resistance to isoniazid, fluoroquinolones, ethionamide, and amikacin. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 May 18;5(5):CD014841.[Abstract][Full Text]
81. Haraka F, Kakolwa M, Schumacher SG, et al. Impact of the diagnostic test Xpert MTB/RIF on patient outcomes for tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 May 6;5(5):CD012972.[Abstract][Full Text]
82. Kohli M, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF assays for extrapulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jan 15;1(1):CD012768.[Abstract][Full Text]
83. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated guidelines for the use of nucleic acid amplification tests in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009 Jan 16;58(1):7-10.[Abstract][Full Text]
84. Bjerrum S, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, et al. Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay for detecting active tuberculosis in people living with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Oct 21;(10):CD011420.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. Nathavitharana RR, Lederer P, Chaplin M, et al. Impact of diagnostic strategies for tuberculosis using lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay in people living with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Aug 20;(8):CD014641.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Aljohaney A, Amjadi K, Alvarez GG. A systematic review of the epidemiology, immunopathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of pleural TB in HIV-infected patients. Clin Dev Immunol. 2012;2012:842045.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Baba K, Hoosen AA, Langeland N, et al. Adenosine deaminase activity is a sensitive marker for the diagnosis of tuberculous pleuritis in patients with very low CD4 counts. PLoS One. 2008 Jul 30;3(7):e2788.[Abstract][Full Text]
88. Long R, Maycher B, Scalcini M, et al. The chest roentgenogram in pulmonary tuberculosis patients seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Chest. 1991 Jan;99(1):123-7.[Abstract]
89. Torok ME, Chau TT, Mai PP, et al. Clinical and microbiological features of HIV-associated tuberculous meningitis in Vietnamese adults. PLoS One. 2008 Mar 19;3(3):e1772.[Abstract][Full Text]
90. Aaron L, Saadoun D, Calatroni, I, et al. Tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients: a comprehensive review. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004 May;10(5):388-98.[Abstract][Full Text]
91. Shafer RW, Kim DS, Weiss JP, et al. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Medicine (Baltimore). 1991 Nov;70(6):384-97.[Abstract]
92. Mistry BJ, Kala UK. Palatial erosion caused by Mycobacterium Avium complex in a human immunodeficiency virus infected child. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007 Jun;26(6):546-8.[Abstract]
93. Blumenthal DR, Zucker JR, Hawkins CC. Mycobacterium avium complex-induced septic arthritis and osteomyelitis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 1990 May;33(5):757-8.[Abstract]
94. Cappell MS, Gupta A. Gastrointestinal hemorrhage due to gastrointestinal Mycobacterium avium intracellulare or esophageal candidiasis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 1992 Feb;87(2):224-9.[Abstract]
95. Stone BL, Cohn DL, Kane MS, et al. Utility of paired blood cultures and smears in diagnosis of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infections in AIDS patients. J Clin Microbiol. 1994 Mar;32(3):841-2.[Abstract][Full Text]
96. Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA, et al. An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007 Feb 15;175(4):367-416.[Abstract][Full Text]
97. Ellison E, Lapuerta P, Martin SE. Fine needle aspiration diagnosis of mycobacterial lymphadenitis. Sensitivity and predictive value in the United States. Acta Cytol. 1999 Mar-Apr;43(2):153-7.[Abstract]
98. Koh DM, Burn PR, Mathews G, et al. Abdominal computed tomographic findings of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infection in HIV seropositive patients. Can Assoc Radiol J. 2003 Feb;54(1):45-50.[Abstract]
99. Pantongrag-Brown L, Krebs TL, Daly BD, et al. Frequency of abdominal CT findings in AIDS patients with M. avium complex bacteraemia. Clin Radiol. 1998 Nov;53(11):816-9.[Abstract]
100. Kovacs JA, Hiemenz JW, Macher AM, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a comparison between patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and patients with other immunodeficiencies. Ann Intern Med. 1984 May;100(5):663-71.[Abstract]
101. Salzer HJF, Schäfer G, Hoenigl M, et al. Clinical, diagnostic, and treatment disparities between HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected immunocompromised patients with Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. Respiration. 2018;96(1):52-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
102. Kroe DM, Kirsch CM, Jensen WA. Diagnostic strategies for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Semin Respir Infect. 1997 Jun;12(2):70-8.[Abstract]
103. Zaman MK, White DA. Serum lactate dehydrogenase levels and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Diagnostic and prognostic significance. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988 Apr;137(4):796-800.[Abstract]
104. Miller RF, Huang L, Walzer PD. Pneumocystis pneumonia associated with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Chest Med. 2013 Jun;34(2):229-41.[Abstract][Full Text]
105. Smith DE, McLuckie A, Wyatt J, et al. Severe exercise hypoxaemia with normal or near normal x-rays: a feature of Pneumocystis carinii infection. Lancet. 1988 Nov 5;2(8619):1049-51.[Abstract]
106. DeLorenzo LJ, Huang CT, Maguire GP, et al. Roentgenographic patterns of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in 104 patients with AIDS. Chest. 1987 Mar;91(3):323-7.[Abstract]
107. Abd AG, Nierman DM, Ilowite JS, et al. Bilateral upper lobe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in a patient receiving inhaled pentamidine prophylaxis. Chest. 1988 Aug;94(2):329-31.[Abstract]
108. Hidalgo A, Falco V, Mauleon S, et al. Accuracy of high-resolution CT in distinguishing between Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and non-Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients. Eur Radiol. 2003 May;13(5):1179-84.[Abstract]
109. Luft BJ, Brooks RG, Conley FK, et al. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. JAMA. 1984 Aug 17;252(7):913-7.[Abstract]
110. Rabaud C, May T, Lucet JC, et al. Pulmonary toxoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: a French National Survey. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Dec;23(6):1249-54.[Abstract]
111. Moshfeghi DM, Dodds EM, Couto CA, et al. Diagnostic approaches to severe, atypical toxoplasmosis mimicking acute retinal necrosis. Ophthalmology. 2004 Apr;111(4):716-25.[Abstract]
112. Smego RA Jr, Orlovic D, Wadula, J. An algorithmic approach to intracranial mass lesions in HIV/AIDS. Int J STD AIDS. 2006 Apr;17(4):271-6.[Abstract]
113. Mesquita RT, Ziegler ÂP, Hiramoto RM, et al. Real-time quantitative PCR in cerebral toxoplasmosis diagnosis of Brazilian human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Med Microbiol. 2010 Jun;59(pt 6):641-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
114. Levy RM, Mills CM, Posin JP, et al. The efficacy and clinical impact of brain imaging in neurologically symptomatic AIDS patients: a prospective CT/MRI study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1990;3(5):461-71.[Abstract]
115. Luft BJ, Hafner R, Korzun AH, et al. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1993 Sep 30;329(14):995-1000.[Abstract][Full Text]
116. Lorberboym M, Wallach F, Estok L, et al. Thallium-201 retention in focal intracranial lesions for differential diagnosis of primary lymphoma and nonmalignant lesions in AIDS patients. J Nucl Med. 1998 Aug;39(8):1366-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
117. Love C, Tomas MB, Tronco GG, et al. FDG PET of infection and inflammation. Radiographics. 2005 Sep-Oct;25(5):1357-68.[Abstract]
118. Rosenfeld SS, Hoffman JM, Coleman RE, et al. Studies of primary central nervous system lymphoma with fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. J Nucl Med. 1992 Apr;33(4):532-6.[Abstract]
119. Giancola ML, Rizzi EB, Schiavo R, et al. Reduced value of thallium-201 single-photon emission computed tomography in the management of HIV-related focal brain lesions in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2004 Jun;20(6):584-8.[Abstract]
120. Antinori A, Ammassari A, Luzzati R, et al. Role of brain biopsy in the management of focal brain lesions in HIV-infected patients. Gruppo Italiano Cooperativo AIDS & Tumori. Neurology. 2000 Feb 22;54(4):993-7.[Abstract]
121. Jabs DA. Ocular manifestations of HIV infection. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1995;93:623-83.[Abstract][Full Text]
122. Meiselman MS, Cello JP, Margaretten W. Cytomegalovirus colitis. Report of the clinical, endoscopic, and pathologic findings in two patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Gastroenterology. 1985 Jan;88(1 Pt 1):171-5.[Abstract]
123. Anders HJ, Goebel FD. Cytomegalovirus polyradiculopathy in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Aug;27(2):345-52.[Abstract]
124. Brantsaeter AB, Holberg-Petersen M, Jeansson S, et al. CMV quantitative PCR in the diagnosis of CMV disease in patients with HIV-infection - a retrospective autopsy based study. BMC Infect Dis. 2007 Nov 6;7:127.[Abstract][Full Text]
125. Jabs DA, Gilpin AM, Min YI, et al. HIV and cytomegalovirus viral load and clinical outcomes in AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis patients: Monoclonal Antibody Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial. AIDS. 2002 Apr 12;16(6):877-87.[Abstract][Full Text]
126. Brouwer AE, Rajanuwong A, Chierakul W, et al. Combination antifungal therapies for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2004 May 29;363(9423):1764-7.[Abstract]
127. Darras-Joly C, Chevret S, Wolff M, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans infection in France: epidemiologic features of and early prognostic parameters for 76 patients who were infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Aug;23(2):369-76.[Abstract]
128. Boulware DR, Rolfes MA, Rajasingham R, et al. Multisite validation of cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay and quantification by laser thermal contrast. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014 Jan;20(1):45-53.[Abstract][Full Text]
129. Tanner DC, Weinstein MP, Fedorciw B, et al. Comparison of commercial kits for detection of cryptococcal antigen. J Clin Microbiol. 1994 Jul;32(7):1680-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
130. Asawavichienjinda T, Sitthi-Amorn C, Tanyanont V. Serum cyrptococcal antigen: diagnostic value in the diagnosis of AIDS-related cryptococcal meningitis. J Med Assoc Thai. 1999 Jan;82(1):65-71.[Abstract]
131. Leber AL, Everhart K, Balada-Llasat JM, et al. Multicenter evaluation of BioFire FilmArray Meningitis/Encephalitis Panel for detection of bacteria, viruses, and yeast in cerebrospinal fluid specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2016 Sep;54(9):2251-61.[Abstract][Full Text]
132. Bianchi M, Robles AM, Vitale R, et al. The usefulness of blood culture in diagnosing HIV-related systemic mycoses: evaluation of a manual lysis centrifugation method. Med Mycol. 2000 Feb;38(1):77-80.[Abstract][Full Text]
133. Millsop JW, Fazel N. Oral candidiasis. Clin Dermatol. 2016 Jul-Aug;34(4):487-94.[Abstract]
134. Underwood JA, Williams JW, Keate RF. Clinical findings and risk factors for Candida esophagitis in outpatients. Dis Esophagus. 2003;16(2):66-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
135. Reef SE, Mayer KH. Opportunistic candidal infections in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: prevention issues and priorities. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Aug;21(suppl 1):S99-102.[Abstract]
136. Lehner T. Classification and clinicopathological features of Candida infections in the mouth. In: Hurley R, Winner HI, eds. Symposium on Candida infections. Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingstone;1996:119.
137. Thom K, Forrest G. Gastrointestinal infections in immunocompromised hosts. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2006 Jan;22(1):18-23.[Abstract]
138. Nokta M. Oral manifestations associated with HIV infection. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2008 Feb;5(1):5-12.[Abstract]
139. Valdivia L, Nix D, Wright M, et al. Coccidioidomycosis as a common cause of community-acquired pneumonia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006 Jun;12(6):958-62.[Abstract][Full Text]
140. Hernández JL, Echevarría S, García-Valtuille A, et al. Atypical coccidioidomycosis in an AIDS patient successfully treated with fluconazole. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1997 Aug;16(8):592-4.[Abstract]
141. Saubolle MA, Wojack BR, Wertheimer AM, et al. Multicenter clinical validation of a cartridge-based real-time PCR system for detection of Coccidioides spp. in lower respiratory specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2018 Feb;56(2):e01277-17.[Abstract][Full Text]
142. Stevens DA, Clemons KV, Levine HB, et al. Expert opinion: what to do when there is Coccidioides exposure in a laboratory. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 Sep 15;49(6):919-23.[Abstract][Full Text]
143. Pappagianis D, Zimmer BL. Serology of coccidioidomycosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1990 Jul;3(3):247-68.[Abstract][Full Text]
144. Havlir DV, Barnes PF. Tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1999 Feb 4;340(5):367-73.[Abstract]
145. Armstrong WS, Katz JT, Kazanjian PH. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated fever of unknown origin: a study of 70 patients in the United States and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Feb;28(2):341-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
146. Havlik JA Jr, Horsburgh CR Jr, Metchock B, et al. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection: clinical identification and epidemiologic trends. J Infect Dis. 1992 Mar;165(3):577-80.[Abstract]
147. Fujii T, Nakamura T, Iwamoto A. Pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with HIV infection: clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, and radiological features. J Infect Chemother. 2007 Feb;13(1):1-7.[Abstract]
148. Mayo J, Collazos J, Martinez E. Fever of unknown origin in the HIV-infected patient: new scenario for an old problem. Scand J Infect Dis. 1997;29(4):327-36.[Abstract]
149. Navia BA, Petito CK, Gold JW, et al. Cerebral toxoplasmosis complicating the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: clinical and neuropathological findings in 27 patients. Ann Neurol. 1986 Mar;19(3):224-38.[Abstract]
150. Bicanic T, Harrison TS. Cryptococcal meningitis. Br Med Bull. 2005 Apr 18;72:99-118.[Abstract][Full Text]
151. Donald PR, Schoeman JF. Tuberculous meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2004 Oct 21;351(17):1719-20.[Abstract]
152. McCutchan JA. Cytomegalovirus infections of the nervous system in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Apr;20(4):747-54.[Abstract]
153. Race EM, Adelson-Mitty J, Kriegel GR, et al. Focal mycobacterial lymphadenitis following initiation of protease-inhibitor therapy in patients with advanced HIV-1 disease. Lancet. 1998 Jan 24;351(9098):252-5.[Abstract]
154. Jabs DA. AIDS and ophthalmology, 2008. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008 Aug;126(8):1143-6.[Abstract]
155. Patel NS, Vavvas DG. Ocular toxoplasmosis: a review of current literature. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2022 Apr 1;62(2):231-50.[Abstract]
156. Rex JH, Larsen RA, Dismukes WE, et al. Catastrophic visual loss due to Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis. Medicine (Baltimore). 1993 Jul;72(4):207-24.[Abstract]
157. Rabaud C, May T, Amiel C, et al. Extracerebral toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. A French national survey. Medicine (Baltimore). 1994 Nov;73(6):306-14.[Abstract]
158. Stover DE, Greeno RA, Gagliardi AJ. The use of a simple exercise test for the diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Jun;139(6):1343-6.[Abstract]
159. Hodge WG, Boivin JF, Shapiro SH, et al. Clinical risk factors for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Ophthalmology. 2004 Jul;111(7):1326-33.[Abstract]
160. Graybill JR, Sobel J, Saag M, et al. Diagnosis and management of increased intracranial pressure in patients with AIDS and cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Jan;30(1):47-54.[Abstract][Full Text]
161. Laborada J, Cohen PR. Tuberculosis-associated erythema nodosum. Cureus. 2021 Dec;13(12):e20184.[Abstract][Full Text]
162. Rizvi Z, Iqbal T, Javed A, et al. Erythema nodosum: a consequence of tuberculosis. Cureus. 2019 May 23;11(5):e4724.[Abstract][Full Text]
163. Gushiken AC, Saharia KK, Baddley JW. Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2021 Jun;35(2):493-514.[Abstract]
164. Garcia Garcia SC, Salas Alanis JC, Flores MG, et al. Coccidioidomycosis and the skin: a comprehensive review. An Bras Dermatol. 2015 Sep-Oct;90(5):610-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
165. Yagupsky P, Menegus MA. Cumulative positivity rates of multiple blood cultures for Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare and Cryptococcus neoformans in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990 Sep;114(9):923-5.[Abstract]
166. Colombo FA, Vidal JE, Penalva de Oliveira AC, et al. Diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients in Brazil: importance of molecular and immunological methods using peripheral blood samples. J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Oct;43(10):5044-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
167. Letang E, Müller MC, Ntamatungiro AJ, et al. Cryptococcal antigenemia in immunocompromised human immunodeficiency virus patients in rural Tanzania: a preventable cause of early mortality. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015 Apr;2(2):ofv046.[Abstract][Full Text]
168. Gascon P, Sathe SS, Rameshwar P. Impaired erythropoiesis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome with disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex. Am J Med. 1993 Jan;94(1):41-8.[Abstract]
169. Horsburgh CR Jr, Metchock B, Gordon SM, et al. Predictors of survival in patients with AIDS and disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease. J Infect Dis. 1994 Sep;170(3):573-7.[Abstract]
170. Graviss EA, Vanden Heuvel EA, Lacke CE, et al. Clinical prediction model for differentiation of disseminated Histoplasma capsulatum and Mycobacterium avium complex infections in febrile patients with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000 May 1;24(1):30-6.[Abstract]
171. Chang YG, Chen PJ, Hung CC, et al. Opportunistic hepatic infections in AIDS patients with fever of unknown origin. J Formos Med Assoc. 1999 Jan;98(1):5-10.[Abstract]
172. Kuhlman JE. Pneumocystic infections: the radiologist's perspective. Radiology. 1996 Mar;198(3):623-35.[Abstract]
173. Salomon N, Perlman DC. Cytomegalovirus pneumonia. Semin Respir Infect. 1999 Dec;14(4):353-8.[Abstract]
174. Olatinwo TF, Herbowy MT, Hewitt RG. Toxoplasmic encephalitis and primary lymphoma of the brain-the shift in epidemiology: a case series and review of the literature. AIDS Read. 2001 Sep;11(9):444-9.[Abstract]
175. Coleman DL, Dodek PM, Luce JM, et al. Diagnostic utility of fiberoptic bronchoscopy in patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1983 Nov;128(5):795-9.[Abstract]
176. Aderaye G, Woldeamanuel Y, Asrat D, et al. Evaluation of Toluidine Blue O staining for the diagnosis of Pneumocystis jiroveci in expectorated sputum sample and bronchoalveolar lavage from HIV-infected patients in a tertiary care referral center in Ethiopia. Infection. 2008 Jun;36(3):237-43.[Abstract]
177. Stover DE, White DA, Romano PA, et al. Diagnosis of pulmonary disease in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Role of bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984 Oct;130(4):659-62.[Abstract]
178. Powderly WG, Mayer KH, Perfect JR. Diagnosis and treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients infected with HIV: a critical reassessment. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1999 Nov 1;15(16):1405-12.[Abstract]
179. Dupon M, Cazenave J, Pellegrin JL, et al. Detection of Toxoplasma gondii by PCR and tissue culture in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive patients. J Clin Microbiol. 1995 Sep;33(9):2421-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
180. Akpek G, Lee SM, Gagnon DR, et al. Bone marrow aspiration, biopsy, and culture in the evaluation of HIV-infected patients for invasive mycobacteria and histoplasma infections. Am J Hematol. 2001 Jun;67(2):100-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
181. Tarantino L, Giorgio A, de Stefano G, et al. Disseminated mycobacterial infection in AIDS patients: abdominal US features and value of fine-needle aspiration biopsy of lymph nodes and spleen. Abdom Imaging. 2003 Sep-Oct;28(5):602-8.[Abstract]
182. Steininger C, Puchhammer-Stockl E, Popow-Kraupp T. Cytomegalovirus disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). J Clin Virol. 2006 Sep;37(1):1-9.[Abstract]
183. Fee MJ, Oo MM, Gabayan AE, et al. Abdominal tuberculosis in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Apr;20(4):938-44.[Abstract]
184. Gruden JF, Huang L, Turner J, et al. High-resolution CT in the evaluation of clinically suspected Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients with normal, equivocal, or nonspecific radiographic findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1997 Oct;169(4):967-75.[Abstract][Full Text]
185. McGuinness G. Changing trends in the pulmonary manifestations of AIDS. Radiol Clin North Am. 1997 Sep;35(5):1029-82.[Abstract]
186. Rene E, Marche C, Chevalier T, et al. Cytomegalovirus colitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Dig Dis Sci. 1988 Jun;33(6):741-50.[Abstract]
187. Wilcox CM, Schwartz DA. Endoscopic-pathologic correlates of Candida esophagitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Dig Dis Sci. 1996 Jul;41(7):1337-45.[Abstract]
188. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tuberculosis (TB) (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) 2009 case definition. Apr 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
189. World Health Organization. Definitions and reporting framework for tuberculosis - 2013 revision: updated December 2014 and January 2020. Jan 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
190. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1993 revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992 Dec 18;41(RR-17):1-19.[Abstract][Full Text]
191. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis: module 2: screening: systematic screening for tuberculosis disease. Mar 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
192. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Latent tuberculosis infection in adults: screening. May 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
193. Galgiani JN, Ampel NM, Blair JE, et al. 2016 Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) clinical practice guideline for the treatment of coccidioidomycosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Sep 15;63(6):e112-46.[Abstract][Full Text]
194. Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Children with and Exposed to HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in children with and exposed to HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Sep 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
195. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection: United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014 Apr 11;63(RR-03):1-10.[Abstract][Full Text]
196. Zolopa A, Andersen J, Komarow L, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy reduces AIDS progression/death in individuals with acute opportunistic infections: a multicenter randomized strategy trial. PLoS One. 2009;4(5):e5575.[Abstract][Full Text]
197. El-Sadr WMG, Grund B, Neuhaus J, et al; SMART Study Group. Risk for opportunistic disease and death after reinitiating continuous antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV previously receiving episodic therapy: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Sep 2;149(5):289-99.[Abstract]
198. British HIV Association. BHIVA guidelines on antiretroviral treatment for adults living with HIV-1 2022 (2023 interim update). 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
199. Munseri PJ, Talbot EA, Mtei L, et al. Completion of isoniazid preventive therapy among HIV-infected patients in Tanzania. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2008 Sep;12(9):1037-41.[Abstract]
200. Mangan JM, Woodruff RS, Winston CA, et al. Recommendations for Use of Video Directly Observed Therapy During Tuberculosis Treatment - United States, 2023. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Mar 24;72(12):313-316.[Abstract][Full Text]
201. Nahid P, Dorman SE, Alipanah N, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines: Treatment of Drug-Susceptible Tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Oct 1;63(7):e147-e195.[Abstract][Full Text]
202. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis: module 4: treatment: drug-susceptible tuberculosis treatment. May 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
203. Dorman SE, Nahid P, Kurbatova EV, et al. Four-month rifapentine regimens with or without moxifloxacin for tuberculosis. N Engl J Med. 2021 May 6;384(18):1705-18.[Abstract][Full Text]
204. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis. Module 4: treatment - drug-resistant tuberculosis treatment, 2022 update. Dec 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
205. Telzak EE, Chirgwin KD, Nelson ET, et al. Predictors for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients and response to specific drug regimens. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1999 Apr;3(4):337-43.[Abstract]
206. Davies G, Cerri S, Richeldi L. Rifabutin for treating pulmonary tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Oct 17;2007(4):CD005159.[Abstract]
207. British HIV Association. British HIV Association guidelines for the treatment of HIV-1-positive adults with antiretroviral therapy 2015 (2016 interim update). Aug 2016 [internet publication].[Full Text]
208. Uthman OA, Okwundu C, Gbenga K, et al. Optimal timing of antiretroviral therapy initiation for HIV-infected adults with newly diagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Jul 7;163(1):32-9.[Abstract]
209. Gardner EM, Burman WJ, DeGroote MA, et al. Conventional and molecular epidemiology of macrolide resistance among new Mycobacterium avium complex isolates recovered from HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Oct 1;41(7):1041-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
210. Haworth CS, Banks J, Capstick T, et al. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of non-tuberculous mycobacterial pulmonary disease (NTM-PD). Thorax. 2017 Nov;72(suppl 2):ii1-64.[Abstract][Full Text]
211. Benson CA, Williams PL, Currier JS, et al. A prospective, randomized trial examining the efficacy and safety of clarithromycin in combination with ethambutol, rifabutin, or both for the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Nov 1;37(9):1234-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
212. Kemper CA, Meng TC, Nussbaum J, et al. Treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex bacteremia in AIDS with a four-drug oral regimen. Rifampin, ethambutol, clofazimine, and ciprofloxacin. The California Collaborative Treatment Group. Ann Intern Med. 1992 Mar 15;116(6):466-72.[Abstract]
213. El-Sadr WM, Burman WJ, Grant LB, et al. Discontinuation of prophylaxis for Mycobacterium avium complex disease in HIV-infected patients who have a response to antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2000 Apr 13;342(15):1085-92.[Abstract][Full Text]
214. Safrin S, Finkelstein DM, Feinberg J, et al. Comparison of three regimens for treatment of mild to moderate Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. A double-blind, randomized, trial of oral trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, dapsone-trimethoprim, and clindamycin-primaquine. ACTG 108 Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1996 May 1;124(9):792-802.[Abstract]
215. Morris A, Wachter RM, Luce J, et al. Improved survival with highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients with severe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. AIDS. 2003 Jan 3;17(1):73-80.[Abstract][Full Text]
216. Montaner JS, Lawson LM, Levitt N, et al. Corticosteroids prevent early deterioration in patients with moderately severe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ann Intern Med. 1990 Jul 1;113(1):14-20.[Abstract]
217. Benfield T, Atzori C, Miller RF, et al. Second-line salvage treatment of AIDS-associated Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: a case series and systematic review. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008 May 1;48(1):63-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
218. National Institutes of Health-University of California Expert Panel for Corticosteroids as Adjunctive Therapy for Pneumocystis Pneumonia. Consensus statement on the use of corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy for pneumocystis pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1990 Nov 22;323(21):1500-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
219. Dworkin MS, Hanson DL, Navin TR. Survival of patients with AIDS, after diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2001 May 1;183(9):1409-12.[Abstract][Full Text]
220. Van Delden C, Hirschel B. Folinic acid supplements to pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine for Toxoplasma encephalitis are associated with better outcome. J Infect Dis. 1996 May;173(5):1294-5.[Abstract]
221. Torre D, Casari S, Speranza F, et al. Randomized trial of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole versus pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine for therapy of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998 Jun;42(6):1346-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
222. Hernandez AV, Thota P, Pellegrino D, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relative efficacy and safety of treatment regimens for HIV-associated cerebral toxoplasmosis: is trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole a real option? HIV Med. 2017 Feb;18(2):115-24.[Abstract][Full Text]
223. Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Feb 1;50(3):291-322.[Abstract][Full Text]
224. van der Horst C, Saag MS, Cloud GA, et al. Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jul 3;337(1):15-21.[Abstract][Full Text]
225. European Medicines Agency. Flucytosine: updated recommendations for the use in patients with dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) deficiency. Jun 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
226. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Flucytosine (Ancotil): new contraindication in patients with DPD deficiency. Oct 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
227. Larsen RA. Editorial response: a comparison of itraconazole versus fluconazole as maintenance therapy for AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Feb;28(2):297-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
228. Vibhagool A, Sungkanuparph S, Mootsikapun P, et al. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for cryptococcal meningitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy: a prospective, multicenter, randomized study. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 May 15;36(10):1329-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
229. Kuppermann BD, Quiceno JI, Flores-Aguilar M, et al. Intravitreal ganciclovir concentration after intravenous administration in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis: implications for therapy. J Infect Dis. 1993 Dec;168(6):1506-9.[Abstract]
230. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Feb 15;62(4):e1-50.[Abstract][Full Text]
231. Hegener P, Troke PF, Fätkenheuer G, et al. Treatment of fluconazole-resistant candidiasis with voriconazole in patients with AIDS. AIDS. 1998 Nov 12;12(16):2227-8.[Abstract]
232. Galgiani JN, Catanzaro A, Cloud GA, et al. Comparison of oral fluconazole and itraconazole for progressive, nonmeningeal coccidioidomycosis. A randomized, double-blind trial. Mycoses Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Nov 7;133(9):676-86.[Abstract]
233. Kim MM, Vikram HR, Kusne S, et al. Treatment of refractory coccidioidomycosis with voriconazole or posaconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Dec;53(11):1060-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
234. Tucker RM, Denning DW, Dupont B, et al. Itraconazole therapy for chronic coccidioidal meningitis. Ann Intern Med. 1990 Jan 15;112(2):108-12.[Abstract]
235. Hamza OJ, Matee MI, Bruggemann RJ, et al. Single-dose fluconazole versus standard 2-week therapy for oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV-infected patients: a randomized, double-blind, double-dummy trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Nov 15;47(10):1270-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
236. Wang F, Langley R, Gulten G, et al. Mechanism of thioamide drug action against tuberculosis and leprosy. J Exp Med. 2007 Jan 22;204(1):73-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
237. Spanakis EK, Aperis G, Mylonakis E. New agents for the treatment of fungal infections: clinical efficacy and gaps in coverage. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Oct 15;43(8):1060-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
238. Jarvis JN, Meintjes G, Rebe K, et al. Adjunctive interferon-γ immunotherapy for the treatment of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomized controlled trial. AIDS. 2012 Jun 1;26(9):1105-13.[Abstract][Full Text]
239. Turner N, Strand A, Grewal DS, et al. Use of letermovir as salvage therapy for drug-resistant cytomegalovirus retinitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019 Mar;63(3):e02337-18.[Abstract][Full Text]
240. Swindells S, Ramchandani R, Gupta A, et al. One Month of Rifapentine plus Isoniazid to Prevent HIV-Related Tuberculosis. N Engl J Med. 2019 Mar 14;380(11):1001-1011.[Abstract][Full Text]
241. Gandhi RT, Bedimo R, Hoy JF, et al. Antiretroviral drugs for treatment and prevention of HIV infection in adults: 2022 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA panel. JAMA. 2023;329(1):63-84.[Full Text]
242. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Managing drug interactions in the treatment of HIV-related tuberculosis. Jun 2013 [internet publication].[Full Text]
243. Daley CL, Iaccarino JM, Lange C, et al. Treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterial pulmonary disease: an official ATS/ERS/ESCMID/IDSA clinical practice guideline. Eur Respir J. 2020 Jul 7;56(1):2000535.[Abstract][Full Text]
244. World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach - second edition. Jun 2016 [internet publication].[Full Text]
245. European AIDS Clinical Society. Guidelines version 12.0. Oct 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
246. Raviglione MC. Facing extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis-a hope and a challenge. N Engl J Med. 2008 Aug 7;359(6):636-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
247. Driver CR, Munsiff SS, Li J, et al. Relapse in persons treated for drug-susceptible tuberculosis in a population with high coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus in New York City. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Nov 15;33(10):1762-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
248. Corti M, Palmero D. Mycobacterium avium complex infection in HIV/AIDS patients. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008 Jun;6(3):351-63.[Abstract]
249. Vidal JE, Hernandez AV, de Oliveira AC, et al. Cerebral toxoplasmosis in HIV-positive patients in Brazil: clinical features and predictors of treatment response in the HAART era. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2005 Oct;19(10):626-34.[Abstract]
250. Hoffmann C, Ernst M, Meyer P, et al. Evolving characteristics of toxoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus-1: clinical course and Toxoplasma gondii-specific immune responses. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2007 May;13(5):510-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
251. Signorini L, Gulletta M, Coppini D, et al. Fatal disseminated toxoplasmosis during primary HIV infection. Curr HIV Res. 2007 Mar;5(2):273-4.[Abstract]
252. Person AK, Crabtree-Ramirez B, Kim A, et al. Cryptococcal meningitis and clinical outcomes in persons with human immunodeficiency virus: a global view. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 Jun 16;76(12):2116-25.[Abstract]
253. Kambugu A, Meya DB, Rhein J, et al. Outcomes of cryptococcal meningitis in Uganda before and after the availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Jun 1;46(11):1694-701.[Abstract][Full Text]
254. Kedhar DR, Jabs DA. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Herpes. 2007 Dec;14(3):66-71.[Abstract]
255. Launay O, Lortholary O, Bouges-Michel C, et al. Candidemia: a nosocomial complication in adults with late-stage AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 May;26(5):1134-41.[Abstract]
256. Phillips P, Bonner S, Gataric N, et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial immune reconstitution syndrome in HIV-infected patients: spectrum of disease and long-term follow-up. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Nov 15;41(10):1483-97.[Abstract][Full Text]
257. Murdoch DM, Venter WD, Van Rie A, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS): review of common infectious manifestations and treatment options. AIDS Res Ther. 2007 May 8;4:9.[Abstract][Full Text]
258. Müller M, Wandel S, Colebunders R, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in patients starting antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010 Apr;10(4):251-61.[Abstract][Full Text]
259. Grant PM, Komarow L, Andersen J, et al. Risk factor analyses for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a randomized study of early vs. deferred ART during an opportunistic infection. PLoS One. 2010 Jul 1;5(7):e11416.[Abstract][Full Text]
260. Shelburne SA 3rd, Darcourt J, White AC Jr, et al. The role of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in AIDS-related Cryptococcus neoformans disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1049-1052.[Abstract][Full Text]
261. Accorinti M, Pirraglia MP, Corradi R, et al. Changing patterns of ocular manifestations in HIV seropositive patients treated with HAART. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2006 Sep-Oct;16(5):728-32.[Abstract]
262. Thorne JE, Jabs DA, Kempen JH, et al. Incidence of and risk factors for visual acuity loss among patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Ophthalmology. 2006 Aug;113(8):1432-40.[Abstract]
263. Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Thorne JE, et al. Course of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: 1. Retinitis progression. Ophthalmology. 2004 Dec;111(12):2224-31.[Abstract]
264. Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Thorne JE, et al. Course of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: 2. Second eye involvement and retinal detachment. Ophthalmology. 2004 Dec;111(12):2232-9.[Abstract]
265. National Tuberculosis Controllers Association, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Guidelines for the investigation of contacts of persons with infectious tuberculosis. Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005 Dec 16;54(RR-15):1-47.[Abstract][Full Text]
266. Miro JM, Lopez JC, Podzamczer D, et al. Discontinuation of primary and secondary Toxoplasma gondii prophylaxis is safe in HIV-infected patients after immunological restoration with highly active antiretroviral therapy: results of an open, randomized, multicenter clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Jul 1;43(1):79-89.[Abstract][Full Text]
267. Walmsley SL, Raboud J, Angel JB, et al. Long-term follow-up of a cohort of HIV-infected patients who discontinued maintenance therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis. HIV Clin Trials. 2006 Jan-Feb;7(1):1-9.[Abstract]
268. Soriano V, Dona C, Rodriguez-Rosado R, et al. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2000 Mar 10;14(4):383-6.[Abstract]